1204 lines
38 KiB
Text
1204 lines
38 KiB
Text
.\" $Id$
|
|
.\" tbl pcref.doc | troff
|
|
.ds OF \\fBtest~off:~\\fR
|
|
.ds ON \\fBtest~on:~~\\fR
|
|
.ds AL \\fBtest~all:~\\fR
|
|
.ll 72n
|
|
.wh 0 hd
|
|
.wh 60 fo
|
|
.de hd
|
|
'sp 5
|
|
..
|
|
.de fo
|
|
'bp
|
|
..
|
|
.tr ~
|
|
. TITLE
|
|
.de TL
|
|
.sp 10
|
|
.ce
|
|
\\fB\\$1\\fR
|
|
.sp 10
|
|
..
|
|
. AUTHOR
|
|
.de AU
|
|
.ce
|
|
by
|
|
.sp 2
|
|
.ce
|
|
\\$1
|
|
..
|
|
. OTHER AUTHOR
|
|
.de OA
|
|
.sp 2
|
|
.ce
|
|
(revised)
|
|
.sp 2
|
|
.ce
|
|
\\$1
|
|
..
|
|
. DATE
|
|
.de DA
|
|
.sp 1
|
|
.ce
|
|
( \\$1 )
|
|
..
|
|
. INSTITUTE
|
|
.de VU
|
|
.sp 3
|
|
.ce 4
|
|
Vakgroep Informatica
|
|
Vrije Universiteit
|
|
De Boelelaan 1081
|
|
Amsterdam
|
|
..
|
|
. PARAGRAPH
|
|
.de PP
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti +5
|
|
..
|
|
.nr CH 0 1
|
|
. CHAPTER
|
|
.de CH
|
|
.nr SH 0 1
|
|
.bp
|
|
.in 0
|
|
\\fB\\n+(CH.~\\$1\\fR
|
|
.PP
|
|
..
|
|
. SUBCHAPTER
|
|
.de SH
|
|
.sp 3
|
|
.in 0
|
|
\\fB\\n(CH.\\n+(SH.~\\$1\\fR
|
|
.PP
|
|
..
|
|
. INDENT START
|
|
.de IS
|
|
.sp
|
|
.in +5
|
|
..
|
|
. INDENT END
|
|
.de IE
|
|
.in -5
|
|
.sp
|
|
..
|
|
. DOUBLE INDENT START
|
|
.de DS
|
|
.sp
|
|
.in +5
|
|
.ll -5
|
|
..
|
|
. DOUBLE INDENT END
|
|
.de DE
|
|
.ll +5
|
|
.in -5
|
|
.sp
|
|
..
|
|
. EQUATION START
|
|
.de EQ
|
|
.sp
|
|
.nf
|
|
..
|
|
. EQUATION END
|
|
.de EN
|
|
.fi
|
|
.sp
|
|
..
|
|
. ITEM
|
|
.de IT
|
|
.sp
|
|
.in 0
|
|
\\fBBS~\\$1:\\fR~\\
|
|
..
|
|
.de CS
|
|
.br
|
|
~-~\\
|
|
..
|
|
.br
|
|
.fi
|
|
.TL "Amsterdam Compiler Kit-Pascal reference manual"
|
|
.AU "Johan W. Stevenson"
|
|
.DA "January 4, 1983"
|
|
.OA "Hans van Eck"
|
|
.DA "May 1, 1989"
|
|
.VU
|
|
.CH "Introduction"
|
|
This document refers to the (1982) BSI standard for Pascal [1].
|
|
Ack-Pascal complies with the requirements of level 1 of BS 6192: 1982, with
|
|
the exceptions as listed in this document.
|
|
.PP
|
|
The standard requires an accompanying document describing the
|
|
implementation-defined and implementation-dependent features,
|
|
the reaction on errors and the extensions to standard Pascal.
|
|
These four items will be treated in the rest of this document,
|
|
each in a separate chapter.
|
|
The other chapters describe the deviations from the standard and
|
|
the list of options recognized by the compiler.
|
|
.PP
|
|
The Ack-Pascal compiler produces code for an EM machine as defined in [2].
|
|
It is up to the implementor of the EM machine to decide whether errors like
|
|
integer overflow, undefined operand and range bound error are recognized or not.
|
|
.PP
|
|
There does not (yet) exist a hardware EM machine.
|
|
Therefore, EM programs must be interpreted, or translated into
|
|
instructions for a target machine.
|
|
The Ack-Pascal compiler is currently available for use with the VAX,
|
|
Motorola MC68020, Motorola MC68000,
|
|
PDP-11, and Intel 8086 code-generators.
|
|
For the 8086, MC68000, and MC68020,
|
|
floating point emulation is used. This is made available with the \fI-fp\fP
|
|
option, which must be passed to \fIack\fP[3].
|
|
.IE
|
|
.CH "Implementation-defined features"
|
|
For each implementation-defined feature mentioned in the BSI standard
|
|
we give the section number, the quotation from that section and the definition.
|
|
First we quote the definition of implementation-defined:
|
|
.DS
|
|
Possibly differing between processors, but defined for any particular
|
|
processor.
|
|
.DE
|
|
.IT 6.1.7
|
|
Each string-character shall denote an implementation-defined value of the
|
|
required char-type.
|
|
.IS
|
|
All 7-bits ASCII characters except linefeed LF (10) are allowed.
|
|
.IE
|
|
.IT 6.4.2.2
|
|
The values of type real shall be an implementation-defined subset
|
|
of the real numbers denoted as specified by 6.1.5 bu signed real.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The format of reals is not defined in EM.
|
|
Even the size of reals depends on the EM-implementation.
|
|
The compiler can be instructed, by the V-option, to use a different
|
|
size for real values.
|
|
The size of reals is preset by the calling program \fIack\fP
|
|
[3] to the proper size.
|
|
.IE
|
|
.IT 6.4.2.2
|
|
The type char shall be the enumeration of a set of implementation-defined
|
|
characters, some possibly without graphic representations.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The 7-bits ASCII character set is used, where LF (10) denotes the
|
|
end-of-line marker on text-files.
|
|
.IT 6.4.2.2
|
|
The ordinal numbers of the character values shall be values of integer-type,
|
|
that are implementation-defined, and that are determined by mapping
|
|
the character values on to consecutive non-negative integer values
|
|
starting at zero.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The normal ASCII ordering is used: ord('0')=48, ord('A')=65, ord('a')=97, etc.
|
|
.IE
|
|
.IT 6.6.5.2
|
|
The post-assertions imply corresponding activities on the external entities,
|
|
if any, to which the file-variables are bound. These activities, and the
|
|
point at which they are actually performed, shall be
|
|
implementation-defined.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The reading and writing writing of objects on files is buffered.
|
|
This means that when a program terminates abnormally, IO may be
|
|
unfinished. Terminal IO is unbuffered.
|
|
Files are closed whenever they are rewritten or reset, or on
|
|
program termination.
|
|
.IT 6.7.2.2
|
|
The predefined constant maxint shall be of integer-type and shall denote
|
|
an implementation-defined value, that satisfies the following conditions:
|
|
.sp 1
|
|
.in +5
|
|
.ti -4
|
|
(a)~All integral values in the closed interval from -maxint to +maxint
|
|
shall be values of the integer-type.
|
|
.ti -4
|
|
(b)~Any monadic operation performed on an integer value in this interval
|
|
shall be correctly performed according to the mathematical rules for
|
|
integer arithmetic.
|
|
.ti -4
|
|
(c)~Any dyadic integer operation on two integer values in this same interval
|
|
shall be correctly performed according to the mathematical rules for
|
|
integer arithmetic, provided that the result is also in this interval.
|
|
.ti -4
|
|
(d)~Any relational operation on two integer values in this same interval
|
|
shall be correctly performed according to the mathematical rules for
|
|
integer arithmetic.
|
|
.in -5
|
|
.IS
|
|
The representation of integers in EM is a \fIn\fP*8-bit word using
|
|
two's complement arithmetic.
|
|
Where \fIn\fP is called wordsize.
|
|
The range of available integers depends on the EM implementation:
|
|
For 2-byte machines, the integers range from -32767 to +32767. For 4-byte
|
|
machines, the integers range from -2147483647 to 2147483647.
|
|
The number -maxint-1 may be used to indicate 'undefined'.
|
|
.IE
|
|
.IT 6.7.2.2
|
|
The result of the real arithmetic operators and functions shall be
|
|
approximations to the corresponding mathematical results. The accuracy of
|
|
this approximation shall be implementation-defined
|
|
.IS
|
|
Since EM doesn't specify floating point format, it is not possible to
|
|
specify the accuracy. When the floating point emulation is used, and the
|
|
default size of reals is 8 bytes, the accuracy is 11 bits for the exponent,
|
|
and 53 bits for the mantissa. This gives an accuracy of about 16 digits,
|
|
and exponents ranging from -309 to +307.
|
|
.IE
|
|
.IT 6.9.3.1
|
|
The default TotalWidth values for integer, Boolean and real types
|
|
shall be implementation-defined.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The defaults are:
|
|
integer 6 for 2-byte machines, 11 for 4-byte machines
|
|
Boolean 5
|
|
real 14
|
|
.IT 6.9.3.4.1
|
|
ExpDigits, the number of digits written in an exponent part of a real,
|
|
shall be implementation-defined.
|
|
.IS
|
|
ExpDigits is defined as 3. This is sufficient for all implementations
|
|
currently available. When the representation would need more than 3
|
|
digits, then the string '***' replaces the exponent.
|
|
.IT 6.9.3.4.1
|
|
The character written as part of the representation of
|
|
a real to indicate the beginning of the exponent part shall be
|
|
implementation-defined, either 'E' or 'e'.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The exponent part starts with 'e'.
|
|
.IT 6.9.3.5
|
|
The case of the characters written as representation of the
|
|
Boolean values shall be implementation-defined.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The representations of true and false are 'true' and 'false'.
|
|
.IT 6.9.5
|
|
The effect caused by the standard procedure page
|
|
on a text file shall be implementation-defined.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The ASCII character form feed FF (12) is written.
|
|
.IT 6.10
|
|
The binding of the variables denoted by the program-parameters
|
|
to entities external to the program shall be implementation-defined if
|
|
the variable is of a file-type.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The program parameters must be files and all, except input and output,
|
|
must be declared as such in the program block.
|
|
.PP
|
|
The program parameters input and output, if specified, will correspond
|
|
with the UNIX streams 'standard input' and 'standard output'.
|
|
.PP
|
|
The other program parameters will be mapped to the argument strings
|
|
provided by the caller of this program.
|
|
The argument strings are supposed to be path names of the files to be
|
|
opened or created.
|
|
The order of the program parameters determines the mapping:
|
|
the first parameter is mapped onto the first argument string etc.
|
|
Note that input and output are ignored in this mapping.
|
|
.PP
|
|
The mapping is recalculated each time a program parameter
|
|
is opened for reading or writing by a call to the standard procedures
|
|
reset or rewrite.
|
|
This gives the programmer the opportunity to manipulate the list
|
|
of string arguments using the external procedures argc, argv and argshift
|
|
available in libpc [6].
|
|
.IT 6.10
|
|
The effect of an explicit use of reset or rewrite
|
|
on the standard textfiles input or output shall be implementation-defined.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The procedures reset and rewrite are no-ops
|
|
if applied to input or output.
|
|
.CH "Implementation-dependent features"
|
|
For each implementation-dependent feature mentioned in the BSI standard,
|
|
we give the section number, the quotation from that section and the way
|
|
this feature is treated by the Ack-Pascal system.
|
|
First we quote the definition of 'implementation-dependent':
|
|
.DS
|
|
Possibly differing between processors and not necessarily defined for any
|
|
particular processor.
|
|
.DE
|
|
.IT 6.7.2.1
|
|
The order of evaluation of the operands of a dyadic operator
|
|
shall be implementation-dependent.
|
|
.IS
|
|
Operands are always evaluated, so the program part
|
|
.EQ
|
|
if (p<>nil) and (p^.value<>0) then
|
|
.EN
|
|
is probably incorrect.
|
|
.PP
|
|
The left-hand operand of a dyadic operator is almost always evaluated
|
|
before the right-hand side.
|
|
Some peculiar evaluations exist for the following cases:
|
|
.IS
|
|
.ti -3
|
|
1.~\
|
|
the modulo operation is performed by a library routine to
|
|
check for negative values of the right operand.
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -3
|
|
2.~\
|
|
the expression
|
|
.EQ
|
|
set1 <= set2
|
|
.EN
|
|
where set1 and set2 are compatible set types is evaluated in the
|
|
following steps:
|
|
.IS
|
|
.CS
|
|
evaluate set2
|
|
.CS
|
|
evaluate set1
|
|
.CS
|
|
compute set2+set1
|
|
.CS
|
|
test set2 and set2+set1 for equality
|
|
.IE
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -3
|
|
3.~\
|
|
the expression
|
|
.EQ
|
|
set1 >= set2
|
|
.EN
|
|
where set1 and set2 are compatible set types is evaluated in the following steps:
|
|
.IS
|
|
.CS
|
|
evaluate set1
|
|
.CS
|
|
evaluate set2
|
|
.CS
|
|
compute set1+set2
|
|
.CS
|
|
test set1 and set1+set2 for equality
|
|
.IE
|
|
.IE
|
|
.IT 6.7.3
|
|
The order of evaluation, accessing and binding
|
|
of the actual-parameters for functions
|
|
shall be implementation-dependent.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The order of evaluation is from right to left.
|
|
.IT 6.8.2.2
|
|
The decision as to the order of accessing the variable and evaluating
|
|
the expression in an assignment-statement, shall be
|
|
implementation-dependent.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The expression is evaluated first.
|
|
.IT 6.8.2.3
|
|
The order of evaluation and binding of the actual-parameters for procedures
|
|
shall be implementation-dependent.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The same as for functions.
|
|
.IT 6.9.5
|
|
The effect of inspecting a text file to which the page
|
|
procedure was applied during generation is
|
|
implementation-dependent.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The formfeed character written by page is
|
|
treated like a normal character, with ordinal value 12.
|
|
.IT 6.10
|
|
The binding of the variables denoted by the program-parameters
|
|
to entities external to the program shall be implementation-dependent unless
|
|
the variable is of a file-type.
|
|
.IS
|
|
Only variables of a file-type are allowed as program parameters.
|
|
.IE
|
|
.CH "Error handling"
|
|
There are three classes of errors to be distinguished.
|
|
In the first class are the error messages generated by the compiler.
|
|
The second class consists of the occasional errors generated by the other
|
|
programs involved in the compilation process.
|
|
Errors of the third class are the errors as defined in the standard by:
|
|
.DS
|
|
An error is a violation by a program of the requirements of this standard
|
|
that a processor is permitted to leave undetected.
|
|
.DE
|
|
.SH "Compiler errors"
|
|
Error are written on the standard error output. Each line has the form:
|
|
.br
|
|
<file>, line <number>: <description>
|
|
.br
|
|
Every time the compiler detects an error that does not have influence
|
|
on the code produced by the compiler or on the syntax decisions, a warning
|
|
messages is given.
|
|
If only warnings are generated, compilation proceeds and probably results
|
|
in a correctly compiled program.
|
|
.PP
|
|
Sometimes the compiler produces several errors for the same line. They are
|
|
only shown up to a maximum of 5 errors per line. Warning are also shown up
|
|
to a maximum of 5 per line.
|
|
.PP
|
|
Extensive treatment of these errors is outside the scope of this manual.
|
|
.SH "Runtime errors"
|
|
Errors detected at run time cause an error message to be generated on the
|
|
diagnostic output stream (UNIX file descriptor 2).
|
|
The message consists of the name of the program followed by a message
|
|
describing the error, possibly followed by the source line number.
|
|
Unless the -L-option is turned on, the compiler generates code to keep track
|
|
of which source line causes which EM instructions to be generated.
|
|
It depends on the EM implementation whether these LIN instructions
|
|
are skipped or executed.
|
|
.PP
|
|
For each error mentioned in the standard we give the section number,
|
|
the quotation from that section and the way it is processed by the
|
|
Pascal-compiler or runtime system.
|
|
.PP
|
|
For detected errors the corresponding message
|
|
and trap number are given.
|
|
Trap numbers are useful for exception-handling routines.
|
|
Normally, each error causes the program to terminate.
|
|
By using exception-handling routines one can
|
|
ignore errors or perform alternate actions.
|
|
Only some of the errors can be ignored
|
|
by restarting the failing instruction.
|
|
These errors are marked as non-fatal,
|
|
all others as fatal.
|
|
A list of errors with trap number between 0 and 63
|
|
(EM errors) can be found in [2].
|
|
Errors with trap number between 64 and 127 (Pascal errors) are listed in [7].
|
|
.IT 6.4.6
|
|
It shall be an error if a value of type T2 must be
|
|
assignment-compatible with type T1, while
|
|
T1 and T2 are compatible ordinal-types and the value of
|
|
type T2 is not in the closed interval specified by T1.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The compiler distinguishes between array-index expressions and the other
|
|
places where assignment-compatibility is required.
|
|
.PP
|
|
Array subscripting is done using the EM array instructions.
|
|
These instructions have three arguments: the array base address,
|
|
the index and the address of the array descriptor.
|
|
An array descriptor describes one dimension by three values:
|
|
the lower bound on the index, the number of elements minus one and the
|
|
element-size.
|
|
It depends on the EM implementation whether these bounds are checked. Since
|
|
most implementations don't, an extra compiler flag is added to force these
|
|
checks.
|
|
.br
|
|
The other places where assignment-compatibility is required are:
|
|
.IS
|
|
.CS
|
|
assignment
|
|
.CS
|
|
value parameters
|
|
.CS
|
|
procedures read and readln
|
|
.CS
|
|
the final value of the for-statement
|
|
.IE
|
|
For these places the compiler generates an EM range check instruction, except
|
|
when the R-option is turned on, or when the range of values of T2
|
|
is enclosed in the range of T1.
|
|
If the expression consists of a single variable and if that variable
|
|
is of a subrange type,
|
|
then the subrange type itself is taken as T2, not its host-type.
|
|
Therefore, a range instruction is only generated if T1 is a subrange type
|
|
and if the expression is a constant, an expression with two or more
|
|
operands, or a single variable with a type not enclosed in T1.
|
|
If a constant is assigned, then the EM optimizer removes the range check
|
|
instruction, except when the value is out of bounds.
|
|
.PP
|
|
It depends on the EM implementation whether the range check instruction
|
|
is executed or skipped.
|
|
.IT 6.4.6
|
|
It shall be an error if a value of type T2 must be
|
|
assignment-compatible with type T1, while T1 and T2 are compatible
|
|
set-types and any member of the value of type T2
|
|
is not in the closed interval specified by the base-type
|
|
of the type T1.
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is not detected.
|
|
.IT 6.5.3.3
|
|
It shall be an error if a component of a variant-part of a variant,
|
|
where the selector of the variant-part is not a field,
|
|
is accessed unless the variant is active for the entirety of each
|
|
reference and access to each component of the variant.
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is not detected.
|
|
.IT 6.5.4
|
|
It shall be an error if
|
|
the pointer-variable of an identified-variable either denotes a
|
|
nil-value or is undefined.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The EM definition does not specify the binary representation of pointer
|
|
values, so that it is not possible to choose an otherwise illegal
|
|
binary representation for the pointer value NIL.
|
|
Rather arbitrary the compiler uses the integer value zero to represent NIL.
|
|
For all current implementations this does not cause problems.
|
|
.PP
|
|
The size of pointers depends on the implementation and is
|
|
preset in the compiler by \fIack\fP [3].
|
|
The compiler can be instructed, by the V-option, to use
|
|
another size for pointer objects.
|
|
NIL is represented here by the appropriate number of zero words.
|
|
.PP
|
|
It depends on the EM implementation whether de-referencing of a pointer
|
|
with value NIL causes an error.
|
|
.IE
|
|
.IT 6.5.4
|
|
It shall be an error to remove the identifying-value of an identified
|
|
variable from its pointer-type when a reference to the variable exists.
|
|
.IS
|
|
When the identified variable is an element of the record-variable-list of
|
|
a with_statement, a warning is given at compile-time. Otherwise, this error
|
|
is not detected.
|
|
.IT 6.5.5
|
|
It shall be an error to alter the value of a file-variable f when a
|
|
reference to the buffer-variable f^ exists.
|
|
.IS
|
|
When f is altered when it is an element of the record-variable-list of a
|
|
with-statement, a warning is given. When a buffer-variable is used as a
|
|
variable-parameter, an error is given. This is done at compile-time.
|
|
.IT 6.6.5.2
|
|
It shall be an error if
|
|
the stated pre-assertion does not hold immediately
|
|
prior to any use of the file handling procedures
|
|
rewrite, put, reset and get.
|
|
.IS
|
|
For each of these four operations the pre-assertions
|
|
can be reformulated as:
|
|
.sp
|
|
rewrite(f):~no pre-assertion.
|
|
.br
|
|
put(f):~~~~~f is opened for writing and f^ is not undefined.
|
|
.br
|
|
reset(f):~~~f exists.
|
|
.br
|
|
get(f):~~~~~f is opened for reading and eof(f) is false.
|
|
.sp
|
|
The following errors are detected for these operations:
|
|
.sp
|
|
rewrite(f):
|
|
.in +10
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
more args expected, trap 64, fatal:
|
|
.br
|
|
f is a program-parameter and the corresponding
|
|
file name is not supplied by the caller of the program.
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
rewrite error, trap 101, fatal:
|
|
.br
|
|
the caller of the program lacks the necessary
|
|
access rights to create the file in the file system
|
|
or operating system problems like table overflow
|
|
prevent creation of the file.
|
|
.in -10
|
|
.sp
|
|
put(f):
|
|
.in +10
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
file not yet open, trap 72, fatal:
|
|
.br
|
|
reset or rewrite are never applied to the file.
|
|
The checks performed by the run time system are not foolproof.
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
not writable, trap 96, fatal:
|
|
.br
|
|
f is opened for reading.
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
write error, trap 104, fatal:
|
|
.br
|
|
probably caused by file system problems.
|
|
For instance, the file storage is exhausted.
|
|
Because IO is buffered to improve performance,
|
|
it might happen that this error occurs if the
|
|
file is closed.
|
|
Files are closed whenever they are rewritten or reset, or on
|
|
program termination.
|
|
.in -10
|
|
.sp
|
|
reset(f):
|
|
.in +10
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
more args expected, trap 64, fatal:
|
|
.br
|
|
same as for rewrite(f).
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
reset error, trap 100, fatal:
|
|
.br
|
|
f does not exist, or the caller has insufficient access rights, or
|
|
operating system tables are exhausted.
|
|
.in -10
|
|
.sp
|
|
get(f):
|
|
.in +10
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
file not yet open, trap 72, fatal:
|
|
.br
|
|
as for put(f).
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
not readable, trap 97, fatal:
|
|
.br
|
|
f is opened for writing.
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
end of file, trap 98, fatal:
|
|
.br
|
|
eof(f) is true just before the call to get(f).
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
read error, trap 103, fatal:
|
|
.br
|
|
unlikely to happen. Probably caused by hardware problems
|
|
or by errors elsewhere in the program that destroyed
|
|
the file information maintained by the run time system.
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
truncated, trap 99, fatal:
|
|
.br
|
|
the file is not properly formed by an integer
|
|
number of file elements.
|
|
For instance, the size of a file of integer is odd.
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
non-ASCII char read, trap 106, non-fatal:
|
|
.br
|
|
the character value of the next character-type
|
|
file element is out of range (0..127).
|
|
Only for text files.
|
|
.in -10
|
|
.IT 6.6.5.3
|
|
It shall be an error if a variant of a variant-part within the new
|
|
variable becomes active and a different variant of the variant-part is
|
|
one of the specified variants.
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is not detected.
|
|
.IT 6.6.5.3
|
|
It shall be an error to use dispose(q) if the identifying variable has been
|
|
allocated using the form new(p,c1,...,cn).
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is not detected. However, this error can cause more memory
|
|
to be freed then was allocated.
|
|
Dispose causes a fatal trap 73 when memory already on the free
|
|
list is freed again.
|
|
.IT 6.6.5.3
|
|
It shall be an error to use dispose(q,k1,...,km) if the identifying
|
|
variable has been allocated using the form new(p,c1,...,cn) and m is not
|
|
equal to n.
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is not detected. However, this error can cause more memory
|
|
to be freed then was allocated.
|
|
Dispose causes a fatal trap 73 when memory already on the free
|
|
list is freed again.
|
|
.IT 6.6.5.3
|
|
It shall be an error if the variants of a variable to be disposed
|
|
are different from those specified by the case-constants to dispose.
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is not detected.
|
|
.IT 6.6.5.3
|
|
It shall be an error if the value of the pointer parameter of dispose has
|
|
nil-value or is undefined.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The same comments apply as for de-referencing NIL or undefined pointers.
|
|
.IT 6.6.5.3
|
|
It shall be an error if a variable created using the second form of new is
|
|
accessed by the identified variable of the variable-access of a factor,
|
|
of an assignment-statement, or of an actual-parameter.
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is not detected.
|
|
.IT 6.6.6.2
|
|
It shall be an error if the value of sqr(x) does not exist.
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is detected for real-type arguments (real overflow,
|
|
trap 4, non-fatal).
|
|
.IT 6.6.6.2
|
|
It shall be an error if x in ln(x) is smaller than or equal to 0.
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is detected (error in ln, trap 66, non-fatal)
|
|
.IT 6.6.6.2
|
|
It shall be an error if x in sqrt(x) is smaller than 0.
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is detected (error in sqrt, trap 67, non-fatal)
|
|
.sp
|
|
In addition to these errors, overflow in the expression exp(x) is
|
|
detected (error in exp, trap 65, non-fatal; real overflow, trap 4, non-fatal)
|
|
.sp
|
|
.IT 6.6.6.3
|
|
It shall be an error if
|
|
the integer value of trunc(x) does not exist.
|
|
.IS
|
|
It depends on the implementations whether this error is detected.
|
|
The floating-point emulation detects this error (conversion error,
|
|
trap 10, non-fatal).
|
|
.IT 6.6.6.3
|
|
It shall be an error if
|
|
the integer value of round(x) does not exist.
|
|
.IS
|
|
It depends on the implementations whether this error is detected.
|
|
The floating-point emulation detects this error (conversion error,
|
|
trap 10, non-fatal).
|
|
.IT 6.6.6.4
|
|
It shall be an error if
|
|
the integer value of ord(x) does not exist.
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error can not occur, because the compiler will not allow
|
|
such ordinal types.
|
|
.IT 6.6.6.4
|
|
It shall be an error if
|
|
the character value of chr(x) does not exist.
|
|
.IS
|
|
Except when the R-option is off, the compiler generates an EM
|
|
range check instruction. The effect of this instruction depends on the
|
|
EM implementation.
|
|
.IT 6.6.6.4
|
|
It shall be an error if the value of succ(x) does not exist.
|
|
.IS
|
|
Same comments as for chr(x).
|
|
.IT 6.6.6.4
|
|
It shall be an error if the value of pred(x) does not exist.
|
|
.IS
|
|
Same comments as for chr(x).
|
|
.IT 6.6.6.5
|
|
It shall be an error if f in eof(f) is undefined.
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is detected (file not yet open, trap 72, fatal).
|
|
.IT 6.6.6.5
|
|
It shall be an error if
|
|
f in eoln(f) is undefined, or if eof(f) is true at that time.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The following errors may occur:
|
|
.IS
|
|
file not yet open, trap 72, fatal;
|
|
.br
|
|
not readable, trap 97, fatal;
|
|
.br
|
|
end of file, trap 98, fatal.
|
|
.IE
|
|
.IT 6.7.1
|
|
It shall be an error if a variable-access used as an operand
|
|
in an expression is undefined at the time of its use.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The compiler performs some limited checks to see if identifiers are
|
|
used before they are set. Since it can not always be sure (one could, for
|
|
instance, jump out of a loop), only a warning is generated. When an
|
|
expression contains a function-call, an error occur if the
|
|
function is not assigned at run-time.
|
|
.IT 6.7.2.2
|
|
A term of the form x/y shall be an error if y is zero.
|
|
.IS
|
|
It depends on the EM implementation whether this error is detected. On some
|
|
machines, a trap may occur.
|
|
.IT 6.7.2.2
|
|
It shall be an error if j is zero in 'i div j'.
|
|
.IS
|
|
It depends on the EM implementation whether this error is detected. On some
|
|
machines, a trap may occur.
|
|
.IE
|
|
.IT 6.7.2.2
|
|
It shall be an error if
|
|
j is zero or negative in i MOD j.
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is detected (only positive j in 'i mod j', trap 71, non-fatal).
|
|
.IT 6.7.2.2
|
|
It shall be an error if the result of any operation on integer
|
|
operands is not performed according to the mathematical
|
|
rules for integer arithmetic.
|
|
.IS
|
|
The reaction depends on the EM implementation. Most implementations,
|
|
however, will not notice integer overflow.
|
|
.IT 6.8.3.5
|
|
It shall be an error if none of the case-constants is equal to the
|
|
value of the case-index upon entry to the case-statement.
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is detected (case error, trap 20, fatal).
|
|
.IT 6.9.1
|
|
It shall be an error if the sequence of characters read looking for an
|
|
integer does not form a signed-integer as specified in 6.1.5.
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is detected (digit expected, trap 105, non-fatal).
|
|
.IT 6.9.1
|
|
It shall be an error if the sequence of characters read looking for a
|
|
real does not form a signed-number as specified in 6.1.5.
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is detected (digit expected, trap 105, non-fatal).
|
|
.IT 6.9.1
|
|
When read is applied to f, it shall be an error if the buffer-variable f^
|
|
is undefined or the pre-assertions for get do not hold.
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is detected (see get(f)).
|
|
.IT 6.9.3
|
|
When write is applied to a textfile f, it shall be an error if f is
|
|
undefined or f is opened for reading.
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is detected (see put(f)). Furthermore, this error is also
|
|
detected when f is not a textfile.
|
|
.IT 6.9.3.1
|
|
The values of TotalWidth or FracDigits shall be greater than or equal to
|
|
one; it shall be an error if either value is less then one.
|
|
.IS
|
|
When either value is less than zero, an error (illegal field width, trap
|
|
75, non-fatal) occurs. Zero values are allowed, in order to maintain some
|
|
compatibility with the old Ack-Pascal compiler.
|
|
.IT 6.9.5
|
|
It shall be an error if the pre-assertion required for writeln(f) doe not
|
|
hold prior to the invocation of page(f);
|
|
.IS
|
|
This error is detected (see put(f)).
|
|
.CH "Extensions to the standard"
|
|
.IS
|
|
.ti -3
|
|
1.~\
|
|
External routines
|
|
.sp
|
|
Except for the required directive 'forward' the Ack-Pascal compiler recognizes
|
|
the directive 'extern'.
|
|
This directive tells the compiler that the procedure block of this
|
|
procedure will not be present in the current program.
|
|
The code for the body of this procedure must be included at a later
|
|
stage of the compilation process.
|
|
.PP
|
|
This feature allows one to build libraries containing often used routines.
|
|
These routines do not have to be included in all the programs using them.
|
|
Maintenance is much simpler if there is only one library module to be
|
|
changed instead of many Pascal programs.
|
|
.PP
|
|
Another advantage is that these library modules may be written in a different
|
|
language, for instance C or the EM assembly language.
|
|
This is useful for accessing some specific EM instructions not generated
|
|
by the Pascal compiler. Examples are the system call routines and some
|
|
floating point conversion routines.
|
|
Another motive could be the optimization of some time-critical program parts.
|
|
.PP
|
|
The use of external routines, however, is dangerous.
|
|
The compiler normally checks for the correct number and type of parameters
|
|
when a procedure is called and for the result type of functions.
|
|
If an external routine is called these checks are not sufficient,
|
|
because the compiler can not check whether the procedure heading of the
|
|
external routine as given in the Pascal program matches the actual routine
|
|
implementation.
|
|
It should be the loader's task to check this.
|
|
However, the current loaders are not that smart.
|
|
Another solution is to check at run time, at least the number of words
|
|
for parameters. Some EM implementations check this.
|
|
.PP
|
|
For those who wish the use the interface between C and Pascal we
|
|
give an incomplete list of corresponding formal parameters in C and Pascal.
|
|
.sp 1
|
|
.TS
|
|
l l.
|
|
Pascal C
|
|
a:integer int a
|
|
a:char int a
|
|
a:boolean int a
|
|
a:real double a
|
|
a:^type type *a
|
|
var a:type type *a
|
|
procedure a(pars) struct {
|
|
void (*a)() ;
|
|
char *static_link ;
|
|
}
|
|
function a(pars):type struct {
|
|
type (*a)() ;
|
|
char *static_link ;
|
|
}
|
|
.TE
|
|
The Pascal runtime system uses the following algorithm when calling
|
|
function/procedures passed as parameters.
|
|
.TS
|
|
l l.
|
|
if ( static_link ) (*a)(static_link,pars) ;
|
|
else (*a)(pars) ;
|
|
.TE
|
|
.ti -3
|
|
2.~\
|
|
Separate compilation.
|
|
.sp
|
|
The compiler is able to (separately) compile a collection of declarations,
|
|
procedures and functions to form a library.
|
|
The library may be linked with the main program, compiled later.
|
|
The syntax of these modules is
|
|
.EQ
|
|
module = [constant-definition-part]
|
|
[type-definition-part]
|
|
[var-declaration-part]
|
|
[procedure-and-function-declaration-part]
|
|
.EN
|
|
The compiler accepts a program or a module:
|
|
.EQ
|
|
unit = program | module
|
|
.EN
|
|
All variables declared outside a module must be imported
|
|
by parameters, even the files input and output.
|
|
Access to a variable declared in a module is only possible
|
|
using the procedures and functions declared in that same module.
|
|
By giving the correct procedure/function heading followed by the
|
|
directive 'extern' procedures and functions declared in
|
|
other units may be used.
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -3
|
|
3.~\
|
|
Assertions.
|
|
.sp
|
|
When the s-option is off, Ack-Pascal compiler recognizes an additional
|
|
statement, the assertion. Assertions can be used as an aid in debugging
|
|
and documentation. The syntax is:
|
|
.EQ
|
|
assertion = 'assert' Boolean-expression
|
|
.EN
|
|
An assertion is a simple-statement, so
|
|
.EQ
|
|
simple-statement = [assignment-statement |
|
|
procedure-statement |
|
|
goto-statement |
|
|
assertion
|
|
]
|
|
.EN
|
|
An assertion causes an error if the Boolean-expression is false.
|
|
That is its only purpose.
|
|
It does not change any of the variables, at least it should not.
|
|
Therefore, do not use functions with side-effects in the Boolean-expression.
|
|
If the a-option is turned on, then assertions are skipped by the
|
|
compiler. 'assert' is not a word-symbol (keyword) and may be used as identifier.
|
|
However, assignment to a variable and calling of a procedure with that
|
|
name will be impossible.
|
|
If the s-option is turned on, the compiler will not know a thing about
|
|
assertions, so using assertions will then give a parse error.
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -3
|
|
4.~\
|
|
Additional procedures.
|
|
.sp
|
|
Three additional standard procedures are available:
|
|
.IS
|
|
.IS
|
|
.ti -8
|
|
halt:~~~a call of this procedure is equivalent to jumping to the
|
|
end of the program. It is always the last statement executed.
|
|
The exit status of the program may be supplied
|
|
as optional argument. If not, it will be zero.
|
|
.ti -8
|
|
release:
|
|
.ti -8
|
|
mark:~~~for most applications it is sufficient to use the heap as second stack.
|
|
Mark and release are suited for this type of use, more suited than dispose.
|
|
mark(p), with p of type pointer, stores the current value of the
|
|
heap pointer in p. release(p), with p initialized by a call
|
|
of mark(p), restores the heap pointer to its old value.
|
|
All the heap objects, created by calls of new between the call of
|
|
mark and the call of release, are removed and the space they used
|
|
can be reallocated.
|
|
Never use mark and release together with dispose!
|
|
.sp
|
|
.in -10
|
|
.ti -3
|
|
5.~\
|
|
UNIX interfacing.
|
|
.sp
|
|
If the c-option is turned on, then some special features are available
|
|
to simplify an interface with the UNIX environment.
|
|
First of all, the compiler allows for a different type
|
|
of string constants.
|
|
These string constants are delimited by double quotes ('"').
|
|
To put a double quote into these strings, the double quote must be repeated,
|
|
like the single quote in normal string constants.
|
|
These special string constants are terminated by a zero byte (chr(0)).
|
|
The type of these constants is a pointer to a packed array of characters,
|
|
with lower bound 1 and unknown upper bound.
|
|
.br
|
|
Secondly, the compiler predefines a new type identifier 'string' denoting
|
|
this just described string type.
|
|
.PP
|
|
These features are only useful for declaration of
|
|
constants and variables of type 'string'.
|
|
String objects may not be allocated on the heap and string pointers
|
|
may not be de-referenced.
|
|
Still these strings are very useful in combination with external routines.
|
|
The procedure write is extended to print these zero-terminated
|
|
strings correctly.
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -3
|
|
6.~\
|
|
Double length (32 bit) integers.
|
|
.sp
|
|
If the d-option is turned on, then the additional type 'long' is known
|
|
to the compiler.
|
|
By default, long variables have integer values in the
|
|
range -2147483647..+2147483647, but this can be changed with the -V option
|
|
(if the backend can support this).
|
|
Long constants can not be declared.
|
|
Longs can not be used as control-variables.
|
|
It is not allowed to form subranges of type long.
|
|
All operations allowed on integers are also
|
|
allowed on longs and are indicated by the same
|
|
operators: '+', '-', '*', '/', 'div', 'mod'.
|
|
The procedures read and write have been extended to handle long
|
|
arguments correctly. It is possible to read longs from a file of integers
|
|
and vice-versa, but only if longs and integers have the same size.
|
|
The default width for longs is 11.
|
|
The standard procedures 'abs' and 'sqr' have been extended to work
|
|
on long arguments.
|
|
Conversion from integer to long, long to real,
|
|
real to long and long to integer are automatic, like the conversion
|
|
from integer to real.
|
|
These conversions may cause a
|
|
.IS
|
|
conversion error, trap 10, non-fatal
|
|
.IE
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -3
|
|
7.~\
|
|
Underscore as letter.
|
|
.sp
|
|
The character '_' may be used in forming identifiers, if the u- or U-option
|
|
is turned on. It is forbidden to start identifiers with underscores, since
|
|
this may cause name-clashes with run-time routines.
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -3
|
|
8.~\
|
|
Zero field width in write.
|
|
.sp
|
|
Zero TotalWidth arguments are allowed. No characters are written for
|
|
character, string or Boolean type arguments then. A zero FracDigits
|
|
argument for fixed-point representation of reals causes the fraction and
|
|
the character '.' to be suppressed.
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -3
|
|
9.~\
|
|
Pre-processing.
|
|
.sp
|
|
If the very first character of a file containing a Pascal
|
|
program is the sharp ('#', ASCII 23(hex)) the file is preprocessed
|
|
in the same way as C programs.
|
|
Lines beginning with a '#' are taken as preprocessor command lines
|
|
and not fed to the Pascal compiler proper.
|
|
C style comments, /*......*/, are removed by the C preprocessor,
|
|
thus C comments inside Pascal programs are also removed when they
|
|
are fed through the preprocessor.
|
|
.CH "Deviations from the standard"
|
|
Ack-Pascal deviates from the standard proposal in the following ways:
|
|
.IS
|
|
.ti -3
|
|
1.~\
|
|
Standard procedures and functions are not allowed as parameters in Ack-Pascal.
|
|
The same result can be obtained with negligible loss of performance
|
|
by declaring some user routines like:
|
|
.EQ
|
|
function sine(x:real):real;
|
|
begin
|
|
sine:=sin(x)
|
|
end;
|
|
.EN
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -3
|
|
2.~\
|
|
The standard procedures read, readln, write and writeln are implemented as
|
|
word-symbols, and can therefore not be redeclared.
|
|
.CH "Compiler options"
|
|
Some options of the compiler may be controlled by using "{$....}".
|
|
Each option consists of a lower case letter followed by +, - or an unsigned
|
|
number.
|
|
Options are separated by commas.
|
|
The following options exist:
|
|
.in 8
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -8
|
|
a~+/-~~~\
|
|
this option switches assertions on and off.
|
|
If this option is on, then code is included to test these assertions
|
|
at run time. Default +.
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -8
|
|
c~+/-~~~\
|
|
this option, if on, allows the use of C-type string constants
|
|
surrounded by double quotes.
|
|
Moreover, a new type identifier 'string' is predefined.
|
|
Default -.
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -8
|
|
d~+/-~~~\
|
|
this option, if on, allows the use of variables of type 'long'.
|
|
Default -.
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -8
|
|
i~<num>~\
|
|
with this flag the setsize for a set of integers can be
|
|
manipulated.
|
|
The number must be the number of bits per set.
|
|
The default value is wordsize-1.
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -8
|
|
l~+/-~~~\
|
|
if + then code is inserted to keep track of the source line number.
|
|
When this flag is switched on and off, an incorrect line number may appear
|
|
if the error occurs in a part of the program for which this flag is off.
|
|
These same line numbers are used for the profile, flow and count options
|
|
of the EM interpreter em [5].
|
|
Default +.
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -8
|
|
r~+/-~~~\
|
|
if + then code is inserted to check subrange variables against
|
|
lower and upper subrange limits.
|
|
Default +.
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -8
|
|
s~+/-~~~\
|
|
if + then the compiler will hunt for places in the program
|
|
where non-standard features are used, and for each place found
|
|
it will generate a warning. Default -.
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -8
|
|
t~+/-~~~\
|
|
if + then each time a procedure is entered, the routine 'procentry' is
|
|
called, and each time a procedure exits, the procedure 'procexit' is
|
|
called. Both 'procentry' and 'procexit' have a 'string' as parameter. This
|
|
means that when a user specifies his or her own procedures, the c-option
|
|
must be used. Default procedures are present in the run time library.
|
|
Default -.
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -8
|
|
u~+/-~~~\
|
|
if + then the character '_' is treated like a letter,
|
|
so that it may be used in identifiers.
|
|
Procedure and function identifiers are not allowed to start with an
|
|
underscore because they may collide with library routine names.
|
|
Default -.
|
|
.in 0
|
|
.sp
|
|
Some of these flags (c, d, i, s, u, C and U) are only effective when
|
|
they appear before the 'program' symbol. The others may be switched
|
|
on and off.
|
|
.PP
|
|
A very powerful debugging tool is the knowledge that inaccessible statements
|
|
and useless tests are removed by the EM optimizer. For instance, a
|
|
statement like:
|
|
.sp
|
|
.nf
|
|
if debug then
|
|
writeln('initialization done');
|
|
.fi
|
|
.sp
|
|
is completely removed by the optimizer if debug is a constant with
|
|
value false.
|
|
The first line is removed if debug is a constant with value true.
|
|
Of course, if debug is a variable nothing can be removed.
|
|
.PP
|
|
A disadvantage of Pascal, the lack of preinitialized data, can be
|
|
diminished by making use of the possibilities of the EM optimizer.
|
|
For instance, initializing an array of reserved words is sometimes
|
|
optimized into 3 EM instructions. To maximize this effect
|
|
variables must be initialized as much as possible in order of declaration and array entries
|
|
in order of decreasing index.
|
|
.CH "References"
|
|
.in +5
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
[1]~~\
|
|
BSI standard BS 6192: 1982 (ISO 7185).
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
[2]~~\
|
|
A.S.Tanenbaum, J.W.Stevenson, Hans van Staveren, E.G.Keizer,
|
|
"Description of a machine architecture for use with block structured languages",
|
|
Informatica rapport IR-81.
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
[3]~~\
|
|
UNIX manual ack(I).
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
[4]~~\
|
|
UNIX manual ld(I).
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
[5]~~\
|
|
UNIX manual em(I).
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
[6]~~\
|
|
UNIX manual libpc(VII)
|
|
.sp
|
|
.ti -5
|
|
[7]~~\
|
|
UNIX manual pc_prlib(VII)
|