diff --git a/doc/FU540-C000-v1.0.pdf b/doc/FU540-C000-v1.0.pdf
index 5322d67..1a8cc69 100644
Binary files a/doc/FU540-C000-v1.0.pdf and b/doc/FU540-C000-v1.0.pdf differ
diff --git a/user/alarmtest.c b/user/alarmtest.c
index c6da547..ca3db23 100644
--- a/user/alarmtest.c
+++ b/user/alarmtest.c
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ void
 periodic()
 {
   count = count + 1;
-  printf(1, "alarm!\n");
+  printf("alarm!\n");
   sigreturn();
 }
 
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ void
 test0()
 {
   int i;
-  printf(1, "test0 start\n");
+  printf("test0 start\n");
   count = 0;
   sigalarm(2, periodic);
   for(i = 0; i < 1000*500000; i++){
@@ -51,9 +51,9 @@ test0()
   }
   sigalarm(0, 0);
   if(count > 0){
-    printf(1, "test0 passed\n");
+    printf("test0 passed\n");
   } else {
-    printf(1, "test0 failed\n");
+    printf("test0 failed\n");
   }
 }
 
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ test1()
   int i;
   int j;
 
-  printf(1, "test1 start\n");
+  printf("test1 start\n");
   count = 0;
   j = 0;
   sigalarm(2, periodic);
@@ -81,8 +81,8 @@ test1()
   }
   if(i != j || count < 10){
     // i should equal j
-    printf(1, "test1 failed\n");
+    printf("test1 failed\n");
   } else {
-    printf(1, "test1 passed\n");
+    printf("test1 passed\n");
   }
 }
diff --git a/user/cat.c b/user/cat.c
index d3d16c4..52909da 100644
--- a/user/cat.c
+++ b/user/cat.c
@@ -11,12 +11,12 @@ cat(int fd)
 
   while((n = read(fd, buf, sizeof(buf))) > 0) {
     if (write(1, buf, n) != n) {
-      printf(1, "cat: write error\n");
+      printf("cat: write error\n");
       exit();
     }
   }
   if(n < 0){
-    printf(1, "cat: read error\n");
+    printf("cat: read error\n");
     exit();
   }
 }
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ main(int argc, char *argv[])
 
   for(i = 1; i < argc; i++){
     if((fd = open(argv[i], 0)) < 0){
-      printf(1, "cat: cannot open %s\n", argv[i]);
+      printf("cat: cannot open %s\n", argv[i]);
       exit();
     }
     cat(fd);
diff --git a/user/echo.c b/user/echo.c
index ef744ab..bb98e97 100644
--- a/user/echo.c
+++ b/user/echo.c
@@ -8,6 +8,6 @@ main(int argc, char *argv[])
   int i;
 
   for(i = 1; i < argc; i++)
-    printf(1, "%s%s", argv[i], i+1 < argc ? " " : "\n");
+    printf("%s%s", argv[i], i+1 < argc ? " " : "\n");
   exit();
 }
diff --git a/user/forktest.c b/user/forktest.c
index be4915e..fa072ca 100644
--- a/user/forktest.c
+++ b/user/forktest.c
@@ -8,9 +8,9 @@
 #define N  1000
 
 void
-printf(int fd, const char *s, ...)
+print(const char *s)
 {
-  write(fd, s, strlen(s));
+  write(1, s, strlen(s));
 }
 
 void
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ forktest(void)
 {
   int n, pid;
 
-  printf(1, "fork test\n");
+  print("fork test\n");
 
   for(n=0; n<N; n++){
     pid = fork();
@@ -29,23 +29,23 @@ forktest(void)
   }
 
   if(n == N){
-    printf(1, "fork claimed to work N times!\n", N);
+    print("fork claimed to work N times!\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   for(; n > 0; n--){
     if(wait() < 0){
-      printf(1, "wait stopped early\n");
+      print("wait stopped early\n");
       exit();
     }
   }
 
   if(wait() != -1){
-    printf(1, "wait got too many\n");
+    print("wait got too many\n");
     exit();
   }
 
-  printf(1, "fork test OK\n");
+  print("fork test OK\n");
 }
 
 int
diff --git a/user/grep.c b/user/grep.c
index b5fdfc2..152c8a8 100644
--- a/user/grep.c
+++ b/user/grep.c
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ main(int argc, char *argv[])
   char *pattern;
 
   if(argc <= 1){
-    printf(2, "usage: grep pattern [file ...]\n");
+    fprintf(2, "usage: grep pattern [file ...]\n");
     exit();
   }
   pattern = argv[1];
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ main(int argc, char *argv[])
 
   for(i = 2; i < argc; i++){
     if((fd = open(argv[i], 0)) < 0){
-      printf(1, "grep: cannot open %s\n", argv[i]);
+      printf("grep: cannot open %s\n", argv[i]);
       exit();
     }
     grep(pattern, fd);
diff --git a/user/init.c b/user/init.c
index 03e60da..01bb445 100644
--- a/user/init.c
+++ b/user/init.c
@@ -20,19 +20,19 @@ main(void)
   dup(0);  // stderr
 
   for(;;){
-    printf(1, "init: starting sh\n");
+    printf("init: starting sh\n");
     pid = fork();
     if(pid < 0){
-      printf(1, "init: fork failed\n");
+      printf("init: fork failed\n");
       exit();
     }
     if(pid == 0){
       exec("sh", argv);
-      printf(1, "init: exec sh failed\n");
+      printf("init: exec sh failed\n");
       exit();
     }
     while((wpid=wait()) >= 0 && wpid != pid){
-      //printf(1, "zombie!\n");
+      //printf("zombie!\n");
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/user/kill.c b/user/kill.c
index 4b19d3c..3e29cd0 100644
--- a/user/kill.c
+++ b/user/kill.c
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ main(int argc, char **argv)
   int i;
 
   if(argc < 2){
-    printf(2, "usage: kill pid...\n");
+    fprintf(2, "usage: kill pid...\n");
     exit();
   }
   for(i=1; i<argc; i++)
diff --git a/user/ln.c b/user/ln.c
index 482dd79..0bb0c95 100644
--- a/user/ln.c
+++ b/user/ln.c
@@ -6,10 +6,10 @@ int
 main(int argc, char *argv[])
 {
   if(argc != 3){
-    printf(2, "Usage: ln old new\n");
+    fprintf(2, "Usage: ln old new\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(link(argv[1], argv[2]) < 0)
-    printf(2, "link %s %s: failed\n", argv[1], argv[2]);
+    fprintf(2, "link %s %s: failed\n", argv[1], argv[2]);
   exit();
 }
diff --git a/user/ls.c b/user/ls.c
index 3511d87..5847555 100644
--- a/user/ls.c
+++ b/user/ls.c
@@ -31,24 +31,24 @@ ls(char *path)
   struct stat st;
 
   if((fd = open(path, 0)) < 0){
-    printf(2, "ls: cannot open %s\n", path);
+    fprintf(2, "ls: cannot open %s\n", path);
     return;
   }
 
   if(fstat(fd, &st) < 0){
-    printf(2, "ls: cannot stat %s\n", path);
+    fprintf(2, "ls: cannot stat %s\n", path);
     close(fd);
     return;
   }
 
   switch(st.type){
   case T_FILE:
-    printf(1, "%s %d %d %l\n", fmtname(path), st.type, st.ino, st.size);
+    printf("%s %d %d %l\n", fmtname(path), st.type, st.ino, st.size);
     break;
 
   case T_DIR:
     if(strlen(path) + 1 + DIRSIZ + 1 > sizeof buf){
-      printf(1, "ls: path too long\n");
+      printf("ls: path too long\n");
       break;
     }
     strcpy(buf, path);
@@ -60,10 +60,10 @@ ls(char *path)
       memmove(p, de.name, DIRSIZ);
       p[DIRSIZ] = 0;
       if(stat(buf, &st) < 0){
-        printf(1, "ls: cannot stat %s\n", buf);
+        printf("ls: cannot stat %s\n", buf);
         continue;
       }
-      printf(1, "%s %d %d %d\n", fmtname(buf), st.type, st.ino, st.size);
+      printf("%s %d %d %d\n", fmtname(buf), st.type, st.ino, st.size);
     }
     break;
   }
diff --git a/user/mkdir.c b/user/mkdir.c
index 5f1e155..6996ee9 100644
--- a/user/mkdir.c
+++ b/user/mkdir.c
@@ -8,13 +8,13 @@ main(int argc, char *argv[])
   int i;
 
   if(argc < 2){
-    printf(2, "Usage: mkdir files...\n");
+    fprintf(2, "Usage: mkdir files...\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   for(i = 1; i < argc; i++){
     if(mkdir(argv[i]) < 0){
-      printf(2, "mkdir: %s failed to create\n", argv[i]);
+      fprintf(2, "mkdir: %s failed to create\n", argv[i]);
       break;
     }
   }
diff --git a/user/printf.c b/user/printf.c
index f3b3282..5c5c782 100644
--- a/user/printf.c
+++ b/user/printf.c
@@ -49,13 +49,11 @@ printptr(int fd, uint64 x) {
 
 // Print to the given fd. Only understands %d, %x, %p, %s.
 void
-printf(int fd, const char *fmt, ...)
+vprintf(int fd, const char *fmt, va_list ap)
 {
-  va_list ap;
   char *s;
   int c, i, state;
 
-  va_start(ap, fmt);
   state = 0;
   for(i = 0; fmt[i]; i++){
     c = fmt[i] & 0xff;
@@ -95,3 +93,21 @@ printf(int fd, const char *fmt, ...)
     }
   }
 }
+
+void
+fprintf(int fd, const char *fmt, ...)
+{
+  va_list ap;
+
+  va_start(ap, fmt);
+  vprintf(fd, fmt, ap);
+}
+
+void
+printf(const char *fmt, ...)
+{
+  va_list ap;
+
+  va_start(ap, fmt);
+  vprintf(1, fmt, ap);
+}
diff --git a/user/rm.c b/user/rm.c
index 3076d83..4abe295 100644
--- a/user/rm.c
+++ b/user/rm.c
@@ -8,13 +8,13 @@ main(int argc, char *argv[])
   int i;
 
   if(argc < 2){
-    printf(2, "Usage: rm files...\n");
+    fprintf(2, "Usage: rm files...\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   for(i = 1; i < argc; i++){
     if(unlink(argv[i]) < 0){
-      printf(2, "rm: %s failed to delete\n", argv[i]);
+      fprintf(2, "rm: %s failed to delete\n", argv[i]);
       break;
     }
   }
diff --git a/user/sh.c b/user/sh.c
index 13c7883..c573c99 100644
--- a/user/sh.c
+++ b/user/sh.c
@@ -76,14 +76,14 @@ runcmd(struct cmd *cmd)
     if(ecmd->argv[0] == 0)
       exit();
     exec(ecmd->argv[0], ecmd->argv);
-    printf(2, "exec %s failed\n", ecmd->argv[0]);
+    fprintf(2, "exec %s failed\n", ecmd->argv[0]);
     break;
 
   case REDIR:
     rcmd = (struct redircmd*)cmd;
     close(rcmd->fd);
     if(open(rcmd->file, rcmd->mode) < 0){
-      printf(2, "open %s failed\n", rcmd->file);
+      fprintf(2, "open %s failed\n", rcmd->file);
       exit();
     }
     runcmd(rcmd->cmd);
@@ -133,7 +133,7 @@ runcmd(struct cmd *cmd)
 int
 getcmd(char *buf, int nbuf)
 {
-  printf(2, "$ ");
+  fprintf(2, "$ ");
   memset(buf, 0, nbuf);
   gets(buf, nbuf);
   if(buf[0] == 0) // EOF
@@ -161,7 +161,7 @@ main(void)
       // Chdir must be called by the parent, not the child.
       buf[strlen(buf)-1] = 0;  // chop \n
       if(chdir(buf+3) < 0)
-        printf(2, "cannot cd %s\n", buf+3);
+        fprintf(2, "cannot cd %s\n", buf+3);
       continue;
     }
     if(fork1() == 0)
@@ -174,7 +174,7 @@ main(void)
 void
 panic(char *s)
 {
-  printf(2, "%s\n", s);
+  fprintf(2, "%s\n", s);
   exit();
 }
 
@@ -334,7 +334,7 @@ parsecmd(char *s)
   cmd = parseline(&s, es);
   peek(&s, es, "");
   if(s != es){
-    printf(2, "leftovers: %s\n", s);
+    fprintf(2, "leftovers: %s\n", s);
     panic("syntax");
   }
   nulterminate(cmd);
diff --git a/user/stressfs.c b/user/stressfs.c
index ef8f1cd..5edd7aa 100644
--- a/user/stressfs.c
+++ b/user/stressfs.c
@@ -20,14 +20,14 @@ main(int argc, char *argv[])
   char path[] = "stressfs0";
   char data[512];
 
-  printf(1, "stressfs starting\n");
+  printf("stressfs starting\n");
   memset(data, 'a', sizeof(data));
 
   for(i = 0; i < 4; i++)
     if(fork() > 0)
       break;
 
-  printf(1, "write %d\n", i);
+  printf("write %d\n", i);
 
   path[8] += i;
   fd = open(path, O_CREATE | O_RDWR);
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ main(int argc, char *argv[])
     write(fd, data, sizeof(data));
   close(fd);
 
-  printf(1, "read\n");
+  printf("read\n");
 
   fd = open(path, O_RDONLY);
   for (i = 0; i < 20; i++)
diff --git a/user/user.h b/user/user.h
index 4f99c52..0e01b85 100644
--- a/user/user.h
+++ b/user/user.h
@@ -30,7 +30,8 @@ char* strcpy(char*, const char*);
 void *memmove(void*, const void*, int);
 char* strchr(const char*, char c);
 int strcmp(const char*, const char*);
-void printf(int, const char*, ...);
+void fprintf(int, const char*, ...);
+void printf(const char*, ...);
 char* gets(char*, int max);
 uint strlen(const char*);
 void* memset(void*, int, uint);
diff --git a/user/usertests.c b/user/usertests.c
index 285f161..641ac1c 100644
--- a/user/usertests.c
+++ b/user/usertests.c
@@ -13,31 +13,30 @@
 char buf[BUFSZ];
 char name[3];
 char *echoargv[] = { "echo", "ALL", "TESTS", "PASSED", 0 };
-int stdout = 1;
 
 // does chdir() call iput(p->cwd) in a transaction?
 void
 iputtest(void)
 {
-  printf(stdout, "iput test\n");
+  printf("iput test\n");
 
   if(mkdir("iputdir") < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "mkdir failed\n");
+    printf("mkdir failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(chdir("iputdir") < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "chdir iputdir failed\n");
+    printf("chdir iputdir failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(unlink("../iputdir") < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "unlink ../iputdir failed\n");
+    printf("unlink ../iputdir failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(chdir("/") < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "chdir / failed\n");
+    printf("chdir / failed\n");
     exit();
   }
-  printf(stdout, "iput test ok\n");
+  printf("iput test ok\n");
 }
 
 // does exit() call iput(p->cwd) in a transaction?
@@ -46,30 +45,30 @@ exitiputtest(void)
 {
   int pid;
 
-  printf(stdout, "exitiput test\n");
+  printf("exitiput test\n");
 
   pid = fork();
   if(pid < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "fork failed\n");
+    printf("fork failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(pid == 0){
     if(mkdir("iputdir") < 0){
-      printf(stdout, "mkdir failed\n");
+      printf("mkdir failed\n");
       exit();
     }
     if(chdir("iputdir") < 0){
-      printf(stdout, "child chdir failed\n");
+      printf("child chdir failed\n");
       exit();
     }
     if(unlink("../iputdir") < 0){
-      printf(stdout, "unlink ../iputdir failed\n");
+      printf("unlink ../iputdir failed\n");
       exit();
     }
     exit();
   }
   wait();
-  printf(stdout, "exitiput test ok\n");
+  printf("exitiput test ok\n");
 }
 
 // does the error path in open() for attempt to write a
@@ -88,31 +87,31 @@ openiputtest(void)
 {
   int pid;
 
-  printf(stdout, "openiput test\n");
+  printf("openiput test\n");
   if(mkdir("oidir") < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "mkdir oidir failed\n");
+    printf("mkdir oidir failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   pid = fork();
   if(pid < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "fork failed\n");
+    printf("fork failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(pid == 0){
     int fd = open("oidir", O_RDWR);
     if(fd >= 0){
-      printf(stdout, "open directory for write succeeded\n");
+      printf("open directory for write succeeded\n");
       exit();
     }
     exit();
   }
   sleep(1);
   if(unlink("oidir") != 0){
-    printf(stdout, "unlink failed\n");
+    printf("unlink failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   wait();
-  printf(stdout, "openiput test ok\n");
+  printf("openiput test ok\n");
 }
 
 // simple file system tests
@@ -122,19 +121,19 @@ opentest(void)
 {
   int fd;
 
-  printf(stdout, "open test\n");
+  printf("open test\n");
   fd = open("echo", 0);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "open echo failed!\n");
+    printf("open echo failed!\n");
     exit();
   }
   close(fd);
   fd = open("doesnotexist", 0);
   if(fd >= 0){
-    printf(stdout, "open doesnotexist succeeded!\n");
+    printf("open doesnotexist succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
-  printf(stdout, "open test ok\n");
+  printf("open test ok\n");
 }
 
 void
@@ -144,47 +143,47 @@ writetest(void)
   int i;
   enum { N=100, SZ=10 };
   
-  printf(stdout, "small file test\n");
+  printf("small file test\n");
   fd = open("small", O_CREATE|O_RDWR);
   if(fd >= 0){
-    printf(stdout, "creat small succeeded; ok\n");
+    printf("creat small succeeded; ok\n");
   } else {
-    printf(stdout, "error: creat small failed!\n");
+    printf("error: creat small failed!\n");
     exit();
   }
   for(i = 0; i < N; i++){
     if(write(fd, "aaaaaaaaaa", SZ) != SZ){
-      printf(stdout, "error: write aa %d new file failed\n", i);
+      printf("error: write aa %d new file failed\n", i);
       exit();
     }
     if(write(fd, "bbbbbbbbbb", SZ) != SZ){
-      printf(stdout, "error: write bb %d new file failed\n", i);
+      printf("error: write bb %d new file failed\n", i);
       exit();
     }
   }
-  printf(stdout, "writes ok\n");
+  printf("writes ok\n");
   close(fd);
   fd = open("small", O_RDONLY);
   if(fd >= 0){
-    printf(stdout, "open small succeeded ok\n");
+    printf("open small succeeded ok\n");
   } else {
-    printf(stdout, "error: open small failed!\n");
+    printf("error: open small failed!\n");
     exit();
   }
   i = read(fd, buf, N*SZ*2);
   if(i == N*SZ*2){
-    printf(stdout, "read succeeded ok\n");
+    printf("read succeeded ok\n");
   } else {
-    printf(stdout, "read failed\n");
+    printf("read failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   close(fd);
 
   if(unlink("small") < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "unlink small failed\n");
+    printf("unlink small failed\n");
     exit();
   }
-  printf(stdout, "small file test ok\n");
+  printf("small file test ok\n");
 }
 
 void
@@ -192,18 +191,18 @@ writetest1(void)
 {
   int i, fd, n;
 
-  printf(stdout, "big files test\n");
+  printf("big files test\n");
 
   fd = open("big", O_CREATE|O_RDWR);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "error: creat big failed!\n");
+    printf("error: creat big failed!\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   for(i = 0; i < MAXFILE; i++){
     ((int*)buf)[0] = i;
     if(write(fd, buf, BSIZE) != BSIZE){
-      printf(stdout, "error: write big file failed\n", i);
+      printf("error: write big file failed\n", i);
       exit();
     }
   }
@@ -212,7 +211,7 @@ writetest1(void)
 
   fd = open("big", O_RDONLY);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "error: open big failed!\n");
+    printf("error: open big failed!\n");
     exit();
   }
 
@@ -221,16 +220,16 @@ writetest1(void)
     i = read(fd, buf, BSIZE);
     if(i == 0){
       if(n == MAXFILE - 1){
-        printf(stdout, "read only %d blocks from big", n);
+        printf("read only %d blocks from big", n);
         exit();
       }
       break;
     } else if(i != BSIZE){
-      printf(stdout, "read failed %d\n", i);
+      printf("read failed %d\n", i);
       exit();
     }
     if(((int*)buf)[0] != n){
-      printf(stdout, "read content of block %d is %d\n",
+      printf("read content of block %d is %d\n",
              n, ((int*)buf)[0]);
       exit();
     }
@@ -238,10 +237,10 @@ writetest1(void)
   }
   close(fd);
   if(unlink("big") < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "unlink big failed\n");
+    printf("unlink big failed\n");
     exit();
   }
-  printf(stdout, "big files ok\n");
+  printf("big files ok\n");
 }
 
 void
@@ -250,7 +249,7 @@ createtest(void)
   int i, fd;
   enum { N=52 };
   
-  printf(stdout, "many creates, followed by unlink test\n");
+  printf("many creates, followed by unlink test\n");
 
   name[0] = 'a';
   name[2] = '\0';
@@ -265,41 +264,41 @@ createtest(void)
     name[1] = '0' + i;
     unlink(name);
   }
-  printf(stdout, "many creates, followed by unlink; ok\n");
+  printf("many creates, followed by unlink; ok\n");
 }
 
 void dirtest(void)
 {
-  printf(stdout, "mkdir test\n");
+  printf("mkdir test\n");
 
   if(mkdir("dir0") < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "mkdir failed\n");
+    printf("mkdir failed\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   if(chdir("dir0") < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "chdir dir0 failed\n");
+    printf("chdir dir0 failed\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   if(chdir("..") < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "chdir .. failed\n");
+    printf("chdir .. failed\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   if(unlink("dir0") < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "unlink dir0 failed\n");
+    printf("unlink dir0 failed\n");
     exit();
   }
-  printf(stdout, "mkdir test ok\n");
+  printf("mkdir test ok\n");
 }
 
 void
 exectest(void)
 {
-  printf(stdout, "exec test\n");
+  printf("exec test\n");
   if(exec("echo", echoargv) < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "exec echo failed\n");
+    printf("exec echo failed\n");
     exit();
   }
 }
@@ -314,7 +313,7 @@ pipe1(void)
   enum { N=5, SZ=1033 };
   
   if(pipe(fds) != 0){
-    printf(1, "pipe() failed\n");
+    printf("pipe() failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   pid = fork();
@@ -325,7 +324,7 @@ pipe1(void)
       for(i = 0; i < SZ; i++)
         buf[i] = seq++;
       if(write(fds[1], buf, SZ) != SZ){
-        printf(1, "pipe1 oops 1\n");
+        printf("pipe1 oops 1\n");
         exit();
       }
     }
@@ -337,7 +336,7 @@ pipe1(void)
     while((n = read(fds[0], buf, cc)) > 0){
       for(i = 0; i < n; i++){
         if((buf[i] & 0xff) != (seq++ & 0xff)){
-          printf(1, "pipe1 oops 2\n");
+          printf("pipe1 oops 2\n");
           return;
         }
       }
@@ -347,16 +346,16 @@ pipe1(void)
         cc = sizeof(buf);
     }
     if(total != N * SZ){
-      printf(1, "pipe1 oops 3 total %d\n", total);
+      printf("pipe1 oops 3 total %d\n", total);
       exit();
     }
     close(fds[0]);
     wait();
   } else {
-    printf(1, "fork() failed\n");
+    printf("fork() failed\n");
     exit();
   }
-  printf(1, "pipe1 ok\n");
+  printf("pipe1 ok\n");
 }
 
 // meant to be run w/ at most two CPUs
@@ -366,10 +365,10 @@ preempt(void)
   int pid1, pid2, pid3;
   int pfds[2];
 
-  printf(1, "preempt: ");
+  printf("preempt: ");
   pid1 = fork();
   if(pid1 < 0) {
-    printf(1, "fork failed");
+    printf("fork failed");
     exit();
   }
   if(pid1 == 0)
@@ -378,7 +377,7 @@ preempt(void)
 
   pid2 = fork();
   if(pid2 < 0) {
-    printf(1, "fork failed\n");
+    printf("fork failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(pid2 == 0)
@@ -388,13 +387,13 @@ preempt(void)
   pipe(pfds);
   pid3 = fork();
   if(pid3 < 0) {
-     printf(1, "fork failed\n");
+     printf("fork failed\n");
      exit();
   }
   if(pid3 == 0){
     close(pfds[0]);
     if(write(pfds[1], "x", 1) != 1)
-      printf(1, "preempt write error");
+      printf("preempt write error");
     close(pfds[1]);
     for(;;)
       ;
@@ -402,19 +401,19 @@ preempt(void)
 
   close(pfds[1]);
   if(read(pfds[0], buf, sizeof(buf)) != 1){
-    printf(1, "preempt read error");
+    printf("preempt read error");
     return;
   }
   close(pfds[0]);
-  printf(1, "kill... ");
+  printf("kill... ");
   kill(pid1);
   kill(pid2);
   kill(pid3);
-  printf(1, "wait... ");
+  printf("wait... ");
   wait();
   wait();
   wait();
-  printf(1, "preempt ok\n");
+  printf("preempt ok\n");
 }
 
 // try to find any races between exit and wait
@@ -423,24 +422,24 @@ exitwait(void)
 {
   int i, pid;
 
-  printf(1, "exitwait test\n");
+  printf("exitwait test\n");
 
   for(i = 0; i < 100; i++){
     pid = fork();
     if(pid < 0){
-      printf(1, "fork failed\n");
+      printf("fork failed\n");
       exit();
     }
     if(pid){
       if(wait() != pid){
-        printf(1, "wait wrong pid\n");
+        printf("wait wrong pid\n");
         exit();
       }
     } else {
       exit();
     }
   }
-  printf(1, "exitwait ok\n");
+  printf("exitwait ok\n");
 }
 
 // try to find races in the reparenting
@@ -451,23 +450,23 @@ reparent(void)
 {
   int master_pid = getpid();
   
-  printf(1, "reparent test\n");
+  printf("reparent test\n");
 
   for(int i = 0; i < 200; i++){
     int pid = fork();
     if(pid < 0){
-      printf(1, "fork failed\n");
+      printf("fork failed\n");
       exit();
     }
     if(pid){
       if(wait() != pid){
-        printf(1, "wait wrong pid\n");
+        printf("wait wrong pid\n");
         exit();
       }
     } else {
       int pid2 = fork();
       if(pid2 < 0){
-        printf(1, "fork failed\n");
+        printf("fork failed\n");
         kill(master_pid);
         exit();
       }
@@ -478,19 +477,19 @@ reparent(void)
       }
     }
   }
-  printf(1, "reparent ok\n");
+  printf("reparent ok\n");
 }
 
 // what if two children exit() at the same time?
 void
 twochildren(void)
 {
-  printf(1, "twochildren test\n");
+  printf("twochildren test\n");
 
   for(int i = 0; i < 1000; i++){
     int pid1 = fork();
     if(pid1 < 0){
-      printf(1, "fork failed\n");
+      printf("fork failed\n");
       exit();
     }
     if(pid1 == 0){
@@ -498,7 +497,7 @@ twochildren(void)
     } else {
       int pid2 = fork();
       if(pid2 < 0){
-        printf(1, "fork failed\n");
+        printf("fork failed\n");
         exit();
       }
       if(pid2 == 0){
@@ -509,7 +508,7 @@ twochildren(void)
       }
     }
   }
-  printf(1, "twochildren ok\n");
+  printf("twochildren ok\n");
 }
 
 // concurrent forks to try to expose locking bugs.
@@ -519,19 +518,19 @@ forkfork(void)
   int ppid = getpid();
   enum { N=2 };
   
-  printf(1, "forkfork test\n");
+  printf("forkfork test\n");
 
   for(int i = 0; i < N; i++){
     int pid = fork();
     if(pid < 0){
-      printf(1, "fork failed");
+      printf("fork failed");
       exit();
     }
     if(pid == 0){
       for(int j = 0; j < 200; j++){
         int pid1 = fork();
         if(pid1 < 0){
-          printf(1, "fork failed\n");
+          printf("fork failed\n");
           kill(ppid);
           exit();
         }
@@ -548,19 +547,19 @@ forkfork(void)
     wait();
   }
 
-  printf(1, "forkfork ok\n");
+  printf("forkfork ok\n");
 }
 
 void
 forkforkfork(void)
 {
-  printf(1, "forkforkfork test\n");
+  printf("forkforkfork test\n");
 
   unlink("stopforking");
 
   int pid = fork();
   if(pid < 0){
-    printf(1, "fork failed");
+    printf("fork failed");
     exit();
   }
   if(pid == 0){
@@ -582,7 +581,7 @@ forkforkfork(void)
   wait();
   sleep(10); // one second
 
-  printf(1, "forkforkfork ok\n");
+  printf("forkforkfork ok\n");
 }
 
 void
@@ -591,7 +590,7 @@ mem(void)
   void *m1, *m2;
   int pid, ppid;
 
-  printf(1, "mem test\n");
+  printf("mem test\n");
   ppid = getpid();
   if((pid = fork()) == 0){
     m1 = 0;
@@ -606,12 +605,12 @@ mem(void)
     }
     m1 = malloc(1024*20);
     if(m1 == 0){
-      printf(1, "couldn't allocate mem?!!\n");
+      printf("couldn't allocate mem?!!\n");
       kill(ppid);
       exit();
     }
     free(m1);
-    printf(1, "mem ok\n");
+    printf("mem ok\n");
     exit();
   } else {
     wait();
@@ -629,19 +628,19 @@ sharedfd(void)
   enum { N = 1000, SZ=10};
   char buf[SZ];
 
-  printf(1, "sharedfd test\n");
+  printf("sharedfd test\n");
 
   unlink("sharedfd");
   fd = open("sharedfd", O_CREATE|O_RDWR);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(1, "fstests: cannot open sharedfd for writing");
+    printf("fstests: cannot open sharedfd for writing");
     return;
   }
   pid = fork();
   memset(buf, pid==0?'c':'p', sizeof(buf));
   for(i = 0; i < N; i++){
     if(write(fd, buf, sizeof(buf)) != sizeof(buf)){
-      printf(1, "fstests: write sharedfd failed\n");
+      printf("fstests: write sharedfd failed\n");
       break;
     }
   }
@@ -652,7 +651,7 @@ sharedfd(void)
   close(fd);
   fd = open("sharedfd", 0);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(1, "fstests: cannot open sharedfd for reading\n");
+    printf("fstests: cannot open sharedfd for reading\n");
     return;
   }
   nc = np = 0;
@@ -667,9 +666,9 @@ sharedfd(void)
   close(fd);
   unlink("sharedfd");
   if(nc == N*SZ && np == N*SZ){
-    printf(1, "sharedfd ok\n");
+    printf("sharedfd ok\n");
   } else {
-    printf(1, "sharedfd oops %d %d\n", nc, np);
+    printf("sharedfd oops %d %d\n", nc, np);
     exit();
   }
 }
@@ -684,7 +683,7 @@ fourfiles(void)
   char *fname;
   enum { N=12, NCHILD=4, SZ=500 };
   
-  printf(1, "fourfiles test\n");
+  printf("fourfiles test\n");
 
   for(pi = 0; pi < NCHILD; pi++){
     fname = names[pi];
@@ -692,21 +691,21 @@ fourfiles(void)
 
     pid = fork();
     if(pid < 0){
-      printf(1, "fork failed\n");
+      printf("fork failed\n");
       exit();
     }
 
     if(pid == 0){
       fd = open(fname, O_CREATE | O_RDWR);
       if(fd < 0){
-        printf(1, "create failed\n");
+        printf("create failed\n");
         exit();
       }
 
       memset(buf, '0'+pi, SZ);
       for(i = 0; i < N; i++){
         if((n = write(fd, buf, SZ)) != SZ){
-          printf(1, "write failed %d\n", n);
+          printf("write failed %d\n", n);
           exit();
         }
       }
@@ -725,7 +724,7 @@ fourfiles(void)
     while((n = read(fd, buf, sizeof(buf))) > 0){
       for(j = 0; j < n; j++){
         if(buf[j] != '0'+i){
-          printf(1, "wrong char\n");
+          printf("wrong char\n");
           exit();
         }
       }
@@ -733,13 +732,13 @@ fourfiles(void)
     }
     close(fd);
     if(total != N*SZ){
-      printf(1, "wrong length %d\n", total);
+      printf("wrong length %d\n", total);
       exit();
     }
     unlink(fname);
   }
 
-  printf(1, "fourfiles ok\n");
+  printf("fourfiles ok\n");
 }
 
 // four processes create and delete different files in same directory
@@ -750,12 +749,12 @@ createdelete(void)
   int pid, i, fd, pi;
   char name[32];
 
-  printf(1, "createdelete test\n");
+  printf("createdelete test\n");
 
   for(pi = 0; pi < NCHILD; pi++){
     pid = fork();
     if(pid < 0){
-      printf(1, "fork failed\n");
+      printf("fork failed\n");
       exit();
     }
 
@@ -766,14 +765,14 @@ createdelete(void)
         name[1] = '0' + i;
         fd = open(name, O_CREATE | O_RDWR);
         if(fd < 0){
-          printf(1, "create failed\n");
+          printf("create failed\n");
           exit();
         }
         close(fd);
         if(i > 0 && (i % 2 ) == 0){
           name[1] = '0' + (i / 2);
           if(unlink(name) < 0){
-            printf(1, "unlink failed\n");
+            printf("unlink failed\n");
             exit();
           }
         }
@@ -793,10 +792,10 @@ createdelete(void)
       name[1] = '0' + i;
       fd = open(name, 0);
       if((i == 0 || i >= N/2) && fd < 0){
-        printf(1, "oops createdelete %s didn't exist\n", name);
+        printf("oops createdelete %s didn't exist\n", name);
         exit();
       } else if((i >= 1 && i < N/2) && fd >= 0){
-        printf(1, "oops createdelete %s did exist\n", name);
+        printf("oops createdelete %s did exist\n", name);
         exit();
       }
       if(fd >= 0)
@@ -812,7 +811,7 @@ createdelete(void)
     }
   }
 
-  printf(1, "createdelete ok\n");
+  printf("createdelete ok\n");
 }
 
 // can I unlink a file and still read it?
@@ -822,10 +821,10 @@ unlinkread(void)
   enum { SZ = 5 };
   int fd, fd1;
 
-  printf(1, "unlinkread test\n");
+  printf("unlinkread test\n");
   fd = open("unlinkread", O_CREATE | O_RDWR);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(1, "create unlinkread failed\n");
+    printf("create unlinkread failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   write(fd, "hello", SZ);
@@ -833,11 +832,11 @@ unlinkread(void)
 
   fd = open("unlinkread", O_RDWR);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(1, "open unlinkread failed\n");
+    printf("open unlinkread failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(unlink("unlinkread") != 0){
-    printf(1, "unlink unlinkread failed\n");
+    printf("unlink unlinkread failed\n");
     exit();
   }
 
@@ -846,20 +845,20 @@ unlinkread(void)
   close(fd1);
 
   if(read(fd, buf, sizeof(buf)) != SZ){
-    printf(1, "unlinkread read failed");
+    printf("unlinkread read failed");
     exit();
   }
   if(buf[0] != 'h'){
-    printf(1, "unlinkread wrong data\n");
+    printf("unlinkread wrong data\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(write(fd, buf, 10) != 10){
-    printf(1, "unlinkread write failed\n");
+    printf("unlinkread write failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   close(fd);
   unlink("unlinkread");
-  printf(1, "unlinkread ok\n");
+  printf("unlinkread ok\n");
 }
 
 void
@@ -868,61 +867,61 @@ linktest(void)
   enum { SZ = 5 };
   int fd;
 
-  printf(1, "linktest\n");
+  printf("linktest\n");
 
   unlink("lf1");
   unlink("lf2");
 
   fd = open("lf1", O_CREATE|O_RDWR);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(1, "create lf1 failed\n");
+    printf("create lf1 failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(write(fd, "hello", SZ) != SZ){
-    printf(1, "write lf1 failed\n");
+    printf("write lf1 failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   close(fd);
 
   if(link("lf1", "lf2") < 0){
-    printf(1, "link lf1 lf2 failed\n");
+    printf("link lf1 lf2 failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   unlink("lf1");
 
   if(open("lf1", 0) >= 0){
-    printf(1, "unlinked lf1 but it is still there!\n");
+    printf("unlinked lf1 but it is still there!\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   fd = open("lf2", 0);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(1, "open lf2 failed\n");
+    printf("open lf2 failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(read(fd, buf, sizeof(buf)) != SZ){
-    printf(1, "read lf2 failed\n");
+    printf("read lf2 failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   close(fd);
 
   if(link("lf2", "lf2") >= 0){
-    printf(1, "link lf2 lf2 succeeded! oops\n");
+    printf("link lf2 lf2 succeeded! oops\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   unlink("lf2");
   if(link("lf2", "lf1") >= 0){
-    printf(1, "link non-existant succeeded! oops\n");
+    printf("link non-existant succeeded! oops\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   if(link(".", "lf1") >= 0){
-    printf(1, "link . lf1 succeeded! oops\n");
+    printf("link . lf1 succeeded! oops\n");
     exit();
   }
 
-  printf(1, "linktest ok\n");
+  printf("linktest ok\n");
 }
 
 // test concurrent create/link/unlink of the same file
@@ -938,7 +937,7 @@ concreate(void)
     char name[DIRSIZ];
   } de;
 
-  printf(1, "concreate test\n");
+  printf("concreate test\n");
   file[0] = 'C';
   file[2] = '\0';
   for(i = 0; i < N; i++){
@@ -952,7 +951,7 @@ concreate(void)
     } else {
       fd = open(file, O_CREATE | O_RDWR);
       if(fd < 0){
-        printf(1, "concreate create %s failed\n", file);
+        printf("concreate create %s failed\n", file);
         exit();
       }
       close(fd);
@@ -972,11 +971,11 @@ concreate(void)
     if(de.name[0] == 'C' && de.name[2] == '\0'){
       i = de.name[1] - '0';
       if(i < 0 || i >= sizeof(fa)){
-        printf(1, "concreate weird file %s\n", de.name);
+        printf("concreate weird file %s\n", de.name);
         exit();
       }
       if(fa[i]){
-        printf(1, "concreate duplicate file %s\n", de.name);
+        printf("concreate duplicate file %s\n", de.name);
         exit();
       }
       fa[i] = 1;
@@ -986,7 +985,7 @@ concreate(void)
   close(fd);
 
   if(n != N){
-    printf(1, "concreate not enough files in directory listing\n");
+    printf("concreate not enough files in directory listing\n");
     exit();
   }
 
@@ -994,7 +993,7 @@ concreate(void)
     file[1] = '0' + i;
     pid = fork();
     if(pid < 0){
-      printf(1, "fork failed\n");
+      printf("fork failed\n");
       exit();
     }
     if(((i % 3) == 0 && pid == 0) ||
@@ -1015,7 +1014,7 @@ concreate(void)
       wait();
   }
 
-  printf(1, "concreate ok\n");
+  printf("concreate ok\n");
 }
 
 // another concurrent link/unlink/create test,
@@ -1025,12 +1024,12 @@ linkunlink()
 {
   int pid, i;
 
-  printf(1, "linkunlink test\n");
+  printf("linkunlink test\n");
 
   unlink("x");
   pid = fork();
   if(pid < 0){
-    printf(1, "fork failed\n");
+    printf("fork failed\n");
     exit();
   }
 
@@ -1051,7 +1050,7 @@ linkunlink()
   else
     exit();
 
-  printf(1, "linkunlink ok\n");
+  printf("linkunlink ok\n");
 }
 
 // directory that uses indirect blocks
@@ -1062,12 +1061,12 @@ bigdir(void)
   int i, fd;
   char name[10];
 
-  printf(1, "bigdir test\n");
+  printf("bigdir test\n");
   unlink("bd");
 
   fd = open("bd", O_CREATE);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(1, "bigdir create failed\n");
+    printf("bigdir create failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   close(fd);
@@ -1078,7 +1077,7 @@ bigdir(void)
     name[2] = '0' + (i % 64);
     name[3] = '\0';
     if(link("bd", name) != 0){
-      printf(1, "bigdir link failed\n");
+      printf("bigdir link failed\n");
       exit();
     }
   }
@@ -1090,12 +1089,12 @@ bigdir(void)
     name[2] = '0' + (i % 64);
     name[3] = '\0';
     if(unlink(name) != 0){
-      printf(1, "bigdir unlink failed");
+      printf("bigdir unlink failed");
       exit();
     }
   }
 
-  printf(1, "bigdir ok\n");
+  printf("bigdir ok\n");
 }
 
 void
@@ -1103,35 +1102,35 @@ subdir(void)
 {
   int fd, cc;
 
-  printf(1, "subdir test\n");
+  printf("subdir test\n");
 
   unlink("ff");
   if(mkdir("dd") != 0){
-    printf(1, "subdir mkdir dd failed\n");
+    printf("subdir mkdir dd failed\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   fd = open("dd/ff", O_CREATE | O_RDWR);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(1, "create dd/ff failed\n");
+    printf("create dd/ff failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   write(fd, "ff", 2);
   close(fd);
 
   if(unlink("dd") >= 0){
-    printf(1, "unlink dd (non-empty dir) succeeded!\n");
+    printf("unlink dd (non-empty dir) succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   if(mkdir("/dd/dd") != 0){
-    printf(1, "subdir mkdir dd/dd failed\n");
+    printf("subdir mkdir dd/dd failed\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   fd = open("dd/dd/ff", O_CREATE | O_RDWR);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(1, "create dd/dd/ff failed\n");
+    printf("create dd/dd/ff failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   write(fd, "FF", 2);
@@ -1139,146 +1138,146 @@ subdir(void)
 
   fd = open("dd/dd/../ff", 0);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(1, "open dd/dd/../ff failed\n");
+    printf("open dd/dd/../ff failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   cc = read(fd, buf, sizeof(buf));
   if(cc != 2 || buf[0] != 'f'){
-    printf(1, "dd/dd/../ff wrong content\n");
+    printf("dd/dd/../ff wrong content\n");
     exit();
   }
   close(fd);
 
   if(link("dd/dd/ff", "dd/dd/ffff") != 0){
-    printf(1, "link dd/dd/ff dd/dd/ffff failed\n");
+    printf("link dd/dd/ff dd/dd/ffff failed\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   if(unlink("dd/dd/ff") != 0){
-    printf(1, "unlink dd/dd/ff failed\n");
+    printf("unlink dd/dd/ff failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(open("dd/dd/ff", O_RDONLY) >= 0){
-    printf(1, "open (unlinked) dd/dd/ff succeeded\n");
+    printf("open (unlinked) dd/dd/ff succeeded\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   if(chdir("dd") != 0){
-    printf(1, "chdir dd failed\n");
+    printf("chdir dd failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(chdir("dd/../../dd") != 0){
-    printf(1, "chdir dd/../../dd failed\n");
+    printf("chdir dd/../../dd failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(chdir("dd/../../../dd") != 0){
-    printf(1, "chdir dd/../../dd failed\n");
+    printf("chdir dd/../../dd failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(chdir("./..") != 0){
-    printf(1, "chdir ./.. failed\n");
+    printf("chdir ./.. failed\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   fd = open("dd/dd/ffff", 0);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(1, "open dd/dd/ffff failed\n");
+    printf("open dd/dd/ffff failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(read(fd, buf, sizeof(buf)) != 2){
-    printf(1, "read dd/dd/ffff wrong len\n");
+    printf("read dd/dd/ffff wrong len\n");
     exit();
   }
   close(fd);
 
   if(open("dd/dd/ff", O_RDONLY) >= 0){
-    printf(1, "open (unlinked) dd/dd/ff succeeded!\n");
+    printf("open (unlinked) dd/dd/ff succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   if(open("dd/ff/ff", O_CREATE|O_RDWR) >= 0){
-    printf(1, "create dd/ff/ff succeeded!\n");
+    printf("create dd/ff/ff succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(open("dd/xx/ff", O_CREATE|O_RDWR) >= 0){
-    printf(1, "create dd/xx/ff succeeded!\n");
+    printf("create dd/xx/ff succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(open("dd", O_CREATE) >= 0){
-    printf(1, "create dd succeeded!\n");
+    printf("create dd succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(open("dd", O_RDWR) >= 0){
-    printf(1, "open dd rdwr succeeded!\n");
+    printf("open dd rdwr succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(open("dd", O_WRONLY) >= 0){
-    printf(1, "open dd wronly succeeded!\n");
+    printf("open dd wronly succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(link("dd/ff/ff", "dd/dd/xx") == 0){
-    printf(1, "link dd/ff/ff dd/dd/xx succeeded!\n");
+    printf("link dd/ff/ff dd/dd/xx succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(link("dd/xx/ff", "dd/dd/xx") == 0){
-    printf(1, "link dd/xx/ff dd/dd/xx succeeded!\n");
+    printf("link dd/xx/ff dd/dd/xx succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(link("dd/ff", "dd/dd/ffff") == 0){
-    printf(1, "link dd/ff dd/dd/ffff succeeded!\n");
+    printf("link dd/ff dd/dd/ffff succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(mkdir("dd/ff/ff") == 0){
-    printf(1, "mkdir dd/ff/ff succeeded!\n");
+    printf("mkdir dd/ff/ff succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(mkdir("dd/xx/ff") == 0){
-    printf(1, "mkdir dd/xx/ff succeeded!\n");
+    printf("mkdir dd/xx/ff succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(mkdir("dd/dd/ffff") == 0){
-    printf(1, "mkdir dd/dd/ffff succeeded!\n");
+    printf("mkdir dd/dd/ffff succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(unlink("dd/xx/ff") == 0){
-    printf(1, "unlink dd/xx/ff succeeded!\n");
+    printf("unlink dd/xx/ff succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(unlink("dd/ff/ff") == 0){
-    printf(1, "unlink dd/ff/ff succeeded!\n");
+    printf("unlink dd/ff/ff succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(chdir("dd/ff") == 0){
-    printf(1, "chdir dd/ff succeeded!\n");
+    printf("chdir dd/ff succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(chdir("dd/xx") == 0){
-    printf(1, "chdir dd/xx succeeded!\n");
+    printf("chdir dd/xx succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   if(unlink("dd/dd/ffff") != 0){
-    printf(1, "unlink dd/dd/ff failed\n");
+    printf("unlink dd/dd/ff failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(unlink("dd/ff") != 0){
-    printf(1, "unlink dd/ff failed\n");
+    printf("unlink dd/ff failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(unlink("dd") == 0){
-    printf(1, "unlink non-empty dd succeeded!\n");
+    printf("unlink non-empty dd succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(unlink("dd/dd") < 0){
-    printf(1, "unlink dd/dd failed\n");
+    printf("unlink dd/dd failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(unlink("dd") < 0){
-    printf(1, "unlink dd failed\n");
+    printf("unlink dd failed\n");
     exit();
   }
 
-  printf(1, "subdir ok\n");
+  printf("subdir ok\n");
 }
 
 // test writes that are larger than the log.
@@ -1287,20 +1286,20 @@ bigwrite(void)
 {
   int fd, sz;
 
-  printf(1, "bigwrite test\n");
+  printf("bigwrite test\n");
 
   unlink("bigwrite");
   for(sz = 499; sz < (MAXOPBLOCKS+2)*BSIZE; sz += 471){
     fd = open("bigwrite", O_CREATE | O_RDWR);
     if(fd < 0){
-      printf(1, "cannot create bigwrite\n");
+      printf("cannot create bigwrite\n");
       exit();
     }
     int i;
     for(i = 0; i < 2; i++){
       int cc = write(fd, buf, sz);
       if(cc != sz){
-        printf(1, "write(%d) ret %d\n", sz, cc);
+        printf("write(%d) ret %d\n", sz, cc);
         exit();
       }
     }
@@ -1308,7 +1307,7 @@ bigwrite(void)
     unlink("bigwrite");
   }
 
-  printf(1, "bigwrite ok\n");
+  printf("bigwrite ok\n");
 }
 
 void
@@ -1317,18 +1316,18 @@ bigfile(void)
   enum { N = 20, SZ=600 };
   int fd, i, total, cc;
 
-  printf(1, "bigfile test\n");
+  printf("bigfile test\n");
 
   unlink("bigfile");
   fd = open("bigfile", O_CREATE | O_RDWR);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(1, "cannot create bigfile");
+    printf("cannot create bigfile");
     exit();
   }
   for(i = 0; i < N; i++){
     memset(buf, i, SZ);
     if(write(fd, buf, SZ) != SZ){
-      printf(1, "write bigfile failed\n");
+      printf("write bigfile failed\n");
       exit();
     }
   }
@@ -1336,36 +1335,36 @@ bigfile(void)
 
   fd = open("bigfile", 0);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(1, "cannot open bigfile\n");
+    printf("cannot open bigfile\n");
     exit();
   }
   total = 0;
   for(i = 0; ; i++){
     cc = read(fd, buf, SZ/2);
     if(cc < 0){
-      printf(1, "read bigfile failed\n");
+      printf("read bigfile failed\n");
       exit();
     }
     if(cc == 0)
       break;
     if(cc != SZ/2){
-      printf(1, "short read bigfile\n");
+      printf("short read bigfile\n");
       exit();
     }
     if(buf[0] != i/2 || buf[SZ/2-1] != i/2){
-      printf(1, "read bigfile wrong data\n");
+      printf("read bigfile wrong data\n");
       exit();
     }
     total += cc;
   }
   close(fd);
   if(total != N*SZ){
-    printf(1, "read bigfile wrong total\n");
+    printf("read bigfile wrong total\n");
     exit();
   }
   unlink("bigfile");
 
-  printf(1, "bigfile test ok\n");
+  printf("bigfile test ok\n");
 }
 
 void
@@ -1374,78 +1373,78 @@ fourteen(void)
   int fd;
 
   // DIRSIZ is 14.
-  printf(1, "fourteen test\n");
+  printf("fourteen test\n");
 
   if(mkdir("12345678901234") != 0){
-    printf(1, "mkdir 12345678901234 failed\n");
+    printf("mkdir 12345678901234 failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(mkdir("12345678901234/123456789012345") != 0){
-    printf(1, "mkdir 12345678901234/123456789012345 failed\n");
+    printf("mkdir 12345678901234/123456789012345 failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   fd = open("123456789012345/123456789012345/123456789012345", O_CREATE);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(1, "create 123456789012345/123456789012345/123456789012345 failed\n");
+    printf("create 123456789012345/123456789012345/123456789012345 failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   close(fd);
   fd = open("12345678901234/12345678901234/12345678901234", 0);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(1, "open 12345678901234/12345678901234/12345678901234 failed\n");
+    printf("open 12345678901234/12345678901234/12345678901234 failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   close(fd);
 
   if(mkdir("12345678901234/12345678901234") == 0){
-    printf(1, "mkdir 12345678901234/12345678901234 succeeded!\n");
+    printf("mkdir 12345678901234/12345678901234 succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(mkdir("123456789012345/12345678901234") == 0){
-    printf(1, "mkdir 12345678901234/123456789012345 succeeded!\n");
+    printf("mkdir 12345678901234/123456789012345 succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
 
-  printf(1, "fourteen ok\n");
+  printf("fourteen ok\n");
 }
 
 void
 rmdot(void)
 {
-  printf(1, "rmdot test\n");
+  printf("rmdot test\n");
   if(mkdir("dots") != 0){
-    printf(1, "mkdir dots failed\n");
+    printf("mkdir dots failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(chdir("dots") != 0){
-    printf(1, "chdir dots failed\n");
+    printf("chdir dots failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(unlink(".") == 0){
-    printf(1, "rm . worked!\n");
+    printf("rm . worked!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(unlink("..") == 0){
-    printf(1, "rm .. worked!\n");
+    printf("rm .. worked!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(chdir("/") != 0){
-    printf(1, "chdir / failed\n");
+    printf("chdir / failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(unlink("dots/.") == 0){
-    printf(1, "unlink dots/. worked!\n");
+    printf("unlink dots/. worked!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(unlink("dots/..") == 0){
-    printf(1, "unlink dots/.. worked!\n");
+    printf("unlink dots/.. worked!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(unlink("dots") != 0){
-    printf(1, "unlink dots failed!\n");
+    printf("unlink dots failed!\n");
     exit();
   }
-  printf(1, "rmdot ok\n");
+  printf("rmdot ok\n");
 }
 
 void
@@ -1453,58 +1452,58 @@ dirfile(void)
 {
   int fd;
 
-  printf(1, "dir vs file\n");
+  printf("dir vs file\n");
 
   fd = open("dirfile", O_CREATE);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(1, "create dirfile failed\n");
+    printf("create dirfile failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   close(fd);
   if(chdir("dirfile") == 0){
-    printf(1, "chdir dirfile succeeded!\n");
+    printf("chdir dirfile succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   fd = open("dirfile/xx", 0);
   if(fd >= 0){
-    printf(1, "create dirfile/xx succeeded!\n");
+    printf("create dirfile/xx succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   fd = open("dirfile/xx", O_CREATE);
   if(fd >= 0){
-    printf(1, "create dirfile/xx succeeded!\n");
+    printf("create dirfile/xx succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(mkdir("dirfile/xx") == 0){
-    printf(1, "mkdir dirfile/xx succeeded!\n");
+    printf("mkdir dirfile/xx succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(unlink("dirfile/xx") == 0){
-    printf(1, "unlink dirfile/xx succeeded!\n");
+    printf("unlink dirfile/xx succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(link("README", "dirfile/xx") == 0){
-    printf(1, "link to dirfile/xx succeeded!\n");
+    printf("link to dirfile/xx succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(unlink("dirfile") != 0){
-    printf(1, "unlink dirfile failed!\n");
+    printf("unlink dirfile failed!\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   fd = open(".", O_RDWR);
   if(fd >= 0){
-    printf(1, "open . for writing succeeded!\n");
+    printf("open . for writing succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   fd = open(".", 0);
   if(write(fd, "x", 1) > 0){
-    printf(1, "write . succeeded!\n");
+    printf("write . succeeded!\n");
     exit();
   }
   close(fd);
 
-  printf(1, "dir vs file OK\n");
+  printf("dir vs file OK\n");
 }
 
 // test that iput() is called at the end of _namei()
@@ -1513,15 +1512,15 @@ iref(void)
 {
   int i, fd;
 
-  printf(1, "empty file name\n");
+  printf("empty file name\n");
 
   for(i = 0; i < NINODE + 1; i++){
     if(mkdir("irefd") != 0){
-      printf(1, "mkdir irefd failed\n");
+      printf("mkdir irefd failed\n");
       exit();
     }
     if(chdir("irefd") != 0){
-      printf(1, "chdir irefd failed\n");
+      printf("chdir irefd failed\n");
       exit();
     }
 
@@ -1537,7 +1536,7 @@ iref(void)
   }
 
   chdir("/");
-  printf(1, "empty file name OK\n");
+  printf("empty file name OK\n");
 }
 
 // test that fork fails gracefully
@@ -1549,7 +1548,7 @@ forktest(void)
   enum{ N = 1000 };
   int n, pid;
 
-  printf(1, "fork test\n");
+  printf("fork test\n");
 
   for(n=0; n<N; n++){
     pid = fork();
@@ -1560,28 +1559,28 @@ forktest(void)
   }
 
   if (n == 0) {
-    printf(1, "no fork at all!\n");
+    printf("no fork at all!\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   if(n == N){
-    printf(1, "fork claimed to work 1000 times!\n");
+    printf("fork claimed to work 1000 times!\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   for(; n > 0; n--){
     if(wait() < 0){
-      printf(1, "wait stopped early\n");
+      printf("wait stopped early\n");
       exit();
     }
   }
 
   if(wait() != -1){
-    printf(1, "wait got too many\n");
+    printf("wait got too many\n");
     exit();
   }
 
-  printf(1, "fork test OK\n");
+  printf("fork test OK\n");
 }
 
 void
@@ -1594,13 +1593,13 @@ sbrktest(void)
   int fd;
   int n;
 
-  printf(stdout, "sbrk test\n");
+  printf("sbrk test\n");
   oldbrk = sbrk(0);
 
   // does sbrk() return the expected failure value?
   a = sbrk(TOOMUCH);
   if(a != (char*)0xffffffffffffffffL){
-    printf(stdout, "sbrk(<toomuch>) returned %p\n", a);
+    printf("sbrk(<toomuch>) returned %p\n", a);
     exit();
   }
 
@@ -1609,7 +1608,7 @@ sbrktest(void)
   for(i = 0; i < 5000; i++){
     b = sbrk(1);
     if(b != a){
-      printf(stdout, "sbrk test failed %d %x %x\n", i, a, b);
+      printf("sbrk test failed %d %x %x\n", i, a, b);
       exit();
     }
     *b = 1;
@@ -1617,13 +1616,13 @@ sbrktest(void)
   }
   pid = fork();
   if(pid < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "sbrk test fork failed\n");
+    printf("sbrk test fork failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   c = sbrk(1);
   c = sbrk(1);
   if(c != a + 1){
-    printf(stdout, "sbrk test failed post-fork\n");
+    printf("sbrk test failed post-fork\n");
     exit();
   }
   if(pid == 0)
@@ -1635,7 +1634,7 @@ sbrktest(void)
   amt = BIG - (uint64)a;
   p = sbrk(amt);
   if (p != a) {
-    printf(stdout, "sbrk test failed to grow big address space; enough phys mem?\n");
+    printf("sbrk test failed to grow big address space; enough phys mem?\n");
     exit();
   }
   lastaddr = (char*) (BIG-1);
@@ -1645,12 +1644,12 @@ sbrktest(void)
   a = sbrk(0);
   c = sbrk(-PGSIZE);
   if(c == (char*)0xffffffffffffffffL){
-    printf(stdout, "sbrk could not deallocate\n");
+    printf("sbrk could not deallocate\n");
     exit();
   }
   c = sbrk(0);
   if(c != a - PGSIZE){
-    printf(stdout, "sbrk deallocation produced wrong address, a %x c %x\n", a, c);
+    printf("sbrk deallocation produced wrong address, a %x c %x\n", a, c);
     exit();
   }
 
@@ -1658,19 +1657,19 @@ sbrktest(void)
   a = sbrk(0);
   c = sbrk(PGSIZE);
   if(c != a || sbrk(0) != a + PGSIZE){
-    printf(stdout, "sbrk re-allocation failed, a %x c %x\n", a, c);
+    printf("sbrk re-allocation failed, a %x c %x\n", a, c);
     exit();
   }
   if(*lastaddr == 99){
     // should be zero
-    printf(stdout, "sbrk de-allocation didn't really deallocate\n");
+    printf("sbrk de-allocation didn't really deallocate\n");
     exit();
   }
 
   a = sbrk(0);
   c = sbrk(-(sbrk(0) - oldbrk));
   if(c != a){
-    printf(stdout, "sbrk downsize failed, a %x c %x\n", a, c);
+    printf("sbrk downsize failed, a %x c %x\n", a, c);
     exit();
   }
 
@@ -1679,11 +1678,11 @@ sbrktest(void)
     ppid = getpid();
     pid = fork();
     if(pid < 0){
-      printf(stdout, "fork failed\n");
+      printf("fork failed\n");
       exit();
     }
     if(pid == 0){
-      printf(stdout, "oops could read %x = %x\n", a, *a);
+      printf("oops could read %x = %x\n", a, *a);
       kill(ppid);
       exit();
     }
@@ -1693,7 +1692,7 @@ sbrktest(void)
   // if we run the system out of memory, does it clean up the last
   // failed allocation?
   if(pipe(fds) != 0){
-    printf(1, "pipe() failed\n");
+    printf("pipe() failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   for(i = 0; i < sizeof(pids)/sizeof(pids[0]); i++){
@@ -1718,7 +1717,7 @@ sbrktest(void)
     wait();
   }
   if(c == (char*)0xffffffffffffffffL){
-    printf(stdout, "failed sbrk leaked memory\n");
+    printf("failed sbrk leaked memory\n");
     exit();
   }
 
@@ -1726,7 +1725,7 @@ sbrktest(void)
   ppid = getpid();
   pid = fork();
   if(pid < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "fork failed\n");
+    printf("fork failed\n");
     exit();
   }
 
@@ -1739,7 +1738,7 @@ sbrktest(void)
     for (i = 0; i < 10*BIG; i += PGSIZE) {
       n += *(a+i);
     }
-    printf(stdout, "allocate a lot of memory succeeded %d\n", n);
+    printf("allocate a lot of memory succeeded %d\n", n);
     kill(ppid);
     exit();
   }
@@ -1750,11 +1749,11 @@ sbrktest(void)
   fd = open("sbrk", O_CREATE|O_WRONLY);
   unlink("sbrk");
   if(fd < 0)  {
-    printf(stdout, "open sbrk failed\n");
+    printf("open sbrk failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   if ((n = write(fd, a, 10)) < 0) {
-    printf(stdout, "write sbrk failed\n");
+    printf("write sbrk failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   close(fd);
@@ -1762,14 +1761,14 @@ sbrktest(void)
   // test writes to allocated memory
   a = sbrk(PGSIZE);
   if(pipe((int *) a) != 0){
-    printf(1, "pipe() failed\n");
+    printf("pipe() failed\n");
     exit();
   } 
 
   if(sbrk(0) > oldbrk)
     sbrk(-(sbrk(0) - oldbrk));
 
-  printf(stdout, "sbrk test OK\n");
+  printf("sbrk test OK\n");
 }
 
 void
@@ -1778,18 +1777,18 @@ validatetest(void)
   int hi;
   uint64 p;
 
-  printf(stdout, "validate test\n");
+  printf("validate test\n");
   hi = 1100*1024;
 
   for(p = 0; p <= (uint)hi; p += PGSIZE){
     // try to crash the kernel by passing in a bad string pointer
     if(link("nosuchfile", (char*)p) != -1){
-      printf(stdout, "link should not succeed\n");
+      printf("link should not succeed\n");
       exit();
     }
   }
 
-  printf(stdout, "validate ok\n");
+  printf("validate ok\n");
 }
 
 // does unintialized data start out zero?
@@ -1799,14 +1798,14 @@ bsstest(void)
 {
   int i;
 
-  printf(stdout, "bss test\n");
+  printf("bss test\n");
   for(i = 0; i < sizeof(uninit); i++){
     if(uninit[i] != '\0'){
-      printf(stdout, "bss test failed\n");
+      printf("bss test failed\n");
       exit();
     }
   }
-  printf(stdout, "bss test ok\n");
+  printf("bss test ok\n");
 }
 
 // does exec return an error if the arguments
@@ -1825,20 +1824,20 @@ bigargtest(void)
     for(i = 0; i < MAXARG-1; i++)
       args[i] = "bigargs test: failed\n                                                                                                                                                                                                       ";
     args[MAXARG-1] = 0;
-    printf(stdout, "bigarg test\n");
+    printf("bigarg test\n");
     exec("echo", args);
-    printf(stdout, "bigarg test ok\n");
+    printf("bigarg test ok\n");
     fd = open("bigarg-ok", O_CREATE);
     close(fd);
     exit();
   } else if(pid < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "bigargtest: fork failed\n");
+    printf("bigargtest: fork failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   wait();
   fd = open("bigarg-ok", 0);
   if(fd < 0){
-    printf(stdout, "bigarg test failed!\n");
+    printf("bigarg test failed!\n");
     exit();
   }
   close(fd);
@@ -1853,7 +1852,7 @@ fsfull()
   int nfiles;
   int fsblocks = 0;
 
-  printf(1, "fsfull test\n");
+  printf("fsfull test\n");
 
   for(nfiles = 0; ; nfiles++){
     char name[64];
@@ -1863,10 +1862,10 @@ fsfull()
     name[3] = '0' + (nfiles % 100) / 10;
     name[4] = '0' + (nfiles % 10);
     name[5] = '\0';
-    printf(1, "writing %s\n", name);
+    printf("writing %s\n", name);
     int fd = open(name, O_CREATE|O_RDWR);
     if(fd < 0){
-      printf(1, "open %s failed\n", name);
+      printf("open %s failed\n", name);
       break;
     }
     int total = 0;
@@ -1877,7 +1876,7 @@ fsfull()
       total += cc;
       fsblocks++;
     }
-    printf(1, "wrote %d bytes\n", total);
+    printf("wrote %d bytes\n", total);
     close(fd);
     if(total == 0)
       break;
@@ -1895,7 +1894,7 @@ fsfull()
     nfiles--;
   }
 
-  printf(1, "fsfull test finished\n");
+  printf("fsfull test finished\n");
 }
 
 void argptest()
@@ -1903,12 +1902,12 @@ void argptest()
   int fd;
   fd = open("init", O_RDONLY);
   if (fd < 0) {
-    printf(2, "open failed\n");
+    fprintf(2, "open failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   read(fd, sbrk(0) - 1, -1);
   close(fd);
-  printf(1, "arg test passed\n");
+  printf("arg test passed\n");
 }
 
 unsigned long randstate = 1;
@@ -1927,31 +1926,31 @@ stacktest()
   int pid;
   int ppid = getpid();
   
-  printf(1, "stack guard test\n");
+  printf("stack guard test\n");
   pid = fork();
   if(pid == 0) {
     char *sp = (char *) r_sp();
     sp -= PGSIZE;
     // the *sp should cause a trap.
-    printf(1, "stacktest: read below stack %p\n", *sp);
-    printf(1, "stacktest: test FAILED\n");
+    printf("stacktest: read below stack %p\n", *sp);
+    printf("stacktest: test FAILED\n");
     kill(ppid);
     exit();
   } else if(pid < 0){
-    printf (1, "fork failed\n");
+    printf("fork failed\n");
     exit();
   }
   wait();
-  printf(1, "stack guard test ok\n");
+  printf("stack guard test ok\n");
 }
 
 int
 main(int argc, char *argv[])
 {
-  printf(1, "usertests starting\n");
+  printf("usertests starting\n");
 
   if(open("usertests.ran", 0) >= 0){
-    printf(1, "already ran user tests -- rebuild fs.img\n");
+    printf("already ran user tests -- rebuild fs.img\n");
     exit();
   }
   close(open("usertests.ran", O_CREATE));
diff --git a/user/wc.c b/user/wc.c
index e2543a6..43bbf16 100644
--- a/user/wc.c
+++ b/user/wc.c
@@ -26,10 +26,10 @@ wc(int fd, char *name)
     }
   }
   if(n < 0){
-    printf(1, "wc: read error\n");
+    printf("wc: read error\n");
     exit();
   }
-  printf(1, "%d %d %d %s\n", l, w, c, name);
+  printf("%d %d %d %s\n", l, w, c, name);
 }
 
 int
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ main(int argc, char *argv[])
 
   for(i = 1; i < argc; i++){
     if((fd = open(argv[i], 0)) < 0){
-      printf(1, "wc: cannot open %s\n", argv[i]);
+      printf("wc: cannot open %s\n", argv[i]);
       exit();
     }
     wc(fd, argv[i]);